Hot air balloon Dubai dawn experience

The genus Aquila (all have "booted" or feathered tarsi) has a nearly worldwide distribution. The more powerful types are used in falconry; for example golden eagles (A. chrysaetos) have reportedly been used to hunt wolves^[11] in Kazakhstan, and are now most widely used by the Altaic Kazakh eagle hunters in the western Mongolian province of Bayan-Ölgii to hunt foxes,^{[12][13][14][15][16]} and other large prey, as they are in neighbouring Kyrgyzstan.^[17] Most are primarily ground-oriented, but occasionally take birds. Eagles are not used as widely in falconry as other birds of prey, due to the lack of versatility in the larger species (they primarily hunt over large, open ground), the greater potential danger to other people if hunted in a widely populated area, and the difficulty of training and managing an eagle. A little over 300 active falconers are using eagles in Central Asia, with 250 in western Mongolia, 50 in Kazakhstan, and smaller numbers in Kyrgyzstan and western China.^[15]

Most species in the genus Haliaeetus catch and eat fish, some almost exclusively, but in countries where they are not protected, some have been effectively used in hunting for ground quarry.^{[citation needed]} Bald eagles (H. leucocephalus) have been tried by law enforcement agencies in the Netherlands and elsewhere for catching illegal drones,^[18] though the experiment was not successful outside of trials, as the eagles were easily distracted.^[19]

Main articles: Hack (falconry) and Falconry training and technique

Falconry is currently practiced in many countries around the world. The falconer's traditional choice of bird is the Eurasian and American goshawks and peregrine falcon. In contemporary falconry in both North America and the UK, they remain popular, although Harris' hawks and red-tailed hawks are likely more widely used. The Eurasian goshawk and the golden eagle are more commonly used in Eastern Europe than elsewhere. In the west Asia, the saker falcon is the most traditional species flown against the houbara bustard, sandgrouse, stone-curlew, other birds, and hares. Peregrines and other captive-bred imported falcons are also commonplace. Falconry remains an important part of the Arab heritage and culture. The UAE reportedly spends over US$27 million annually towards the protection and conservation of wild falcons, and has set up several state-of-the-art falcon hospitals in Abu Dhabi and Dubai.^[20] The Abu Dhabi Falcon Hospital is the largest falcon hospital in the world. Two breeding farms are in the Emirates, as well as those in Qatar and Saudi Arabia. Every year, falcon beauty contests and demonstrations take place at the ADIHEX exhibition in Abu Dhabi.

Eurasian sparrowhawks were formerly used to take a range of small birds, but have since fallen out of favour due to their fragility and the availability of various American species.^{[citation needed]}

In North America and the UK, falcons usually fly only after birds. Large falcons are typically trained to fly in the "waiting-on" style, where the falcon climbs and circles above the falconer or dog and the quarry is flushed when the falcon is in the desired commanding position. Classical game hawking in the UK had a brace of peregrine falcons flown against red grouse, or merlins in "ringing" flights after skylarks. Rooks and crows are classic game for the larger falcons, and the magpie, making up in cunning what it lacks in flying ability, is another common target. Short-wings^{[clarification needed]} can be flown in both open and wooded country against a variety of bird and small mammal prey. Most hunting with large falcons requires large, open tracts where the falcon is afforded opportunity to strike or seize its quarry before it reaches cover. Most of Europe practices similar styles of falconry, but with differing degrees of regulation.

Medieval falconers often rode horses, but this is now rare with the exception of contemporary Kazakh and Mongolian falconry. In Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Mongolia, the golden eagle is traditionally flown (often from horseback), hunting game as large as foxes and wolves.^[22]

In Japan, the Eurasian goshawk has been used for centuries. Japan continues to honour its strong historical links with falconry (takagari), while adopting some modern techniques and technologies.

In Australia, although falconry is not specifically illegal, it is illegal to keep any type of bird of prey in captivity without the appropriate permits. The only exemption is when the birds are kept for purposes of rehabilitation (for which a licence must still be held), and in such circumstances it may be possible for a competent falconer to teach a bird to hunt and kill wild quarry, as part of its regime of rehabilitation to good health and a fit state to be released into the wild.

In New Zealand, falconry was formally legalised for one species only, the swamp/Australasian harrier (Circus approximans) in 2011. This was only possible with over 25 years of effort from both Wingspan National Bird of Prey Center^[23] and the Raptor Association of New Zealand.^[24] Falconry can only be practiced by people who have been issued a falconry permit by the Department of Conservation. Tangent aspects, such as bird abatement and raptor rehabilitation, also employ falconry techniques to accomplish their goals.

Falcons can live into their midteens, with larger hawks living longer and eagles likely to see out middle-aged owners. Through the captive breeding of rescued birds, the last 30 years have had a great rebirth of the sport, with a host of innovations; falconry's popularity, through lure flying displays at country houses and game fairs, has probably never been higher in the past 300 years. Ornithologist Tim Gallagher, editor of the Cornell Lab of Ornithology's Living Bird magazine, documented his experiences with modern falconry in a 2008 book, Falcon Fever.^[a]

Making use of the natural relationship between raptors and their prey, falconry is now used to control pest birds and animals in urban areas, landfills, commercial buildings,^[26] hotels, and airports.^[27]

Falconry centres or bird-of-prey centres house these raptors. They are responsible for many aspects of bird-of-prey conservation (through keeping the birds for education and breeding). Many conduct regular flying demonstrations and educational talks, and are popular with visitors worldwide.

Such centres may also provide falconry courses, hawk walks, displays, and other experiences with these raptors.

Getting into falconry requires dedication, study, and hands-on experience. In the United States, aspiring falconers must pass a written falconry exam and obtain the appropriate state and federal licenses before keeping a bird of prey. Many beginners start by studying local wildlife laws, bird care, and hunting techniques to prepare for the exam. In the United Kingdom, newcomers often begin by volunteering at a falconry centre or finding an experienced falconer to act as a mentor under the British Falconers’ Club or similar organisations. There are also structured training opportunities, such as professional falconry courses offered by institutions like Falconry Course, which provide comprehensive introductions to the sport, bird handling, and conservation practices.^[28]

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In the UK, the British Falconers' Club (BFC) is the oldest and largest of the falconry clubs. BFC was founded in 1927 by the surviving members of the Old Hawking Club, itself founded in 1864. Working closely with the Hawk Board, an advisory body representing the interests of UK bird of prey keepers, the BFC is in the forefront of raptor conservation, falconer education, and sustainable falconry. Established in 1927, the BFC now has a membership over 1,200 falconers. It began as a small and elite club, but it is now a sizeable democratic organisation that has members from all walks of life, flying hawks, falcons, and eagles at legal quarry throughout the British Isles.

The North American Falconers Association^[29] (NAFA), founded in 1961, is the premier club for falconry in the US, Canada, and Mexico, and has members worldwide. NAFA is the primary club in the United States and has a membership from around the world. Most USA states have their own falconry clubs. Although these clubs are primarily social, they also serve to represent falconers within their states in regards to that state's wildlife regulations.

The International Association for Falconry and Conservation of Birds of Prey,^[30] founded in 1968, currently represents 156 falconry clubs and conservation organisations from 87 countries worldwide, totalling over 75,000 members.

The Saudi Falcons Club preserves the historical heritage associated with the falconry culture, and spreads awareness and provides training to protect falcons and flourish falconry.^[tone]

The successful and now widespread captive breeding of birds of prey began as a response to dwindling wild populations due to persistent toxins such as PCBs and DDT, systematic persecution as undesirable predators, habitat loss, and the resulting limited availability of popular species for falconry, particularly the peregrine falcon. The first known raptors to breed in captivity belonged to a German falconer named Renz Waller. In 1942–43, he produced two young peregrines in Düsseldorf in Germany.

The first successful captive breeding of peregrine falcons in North America occurred in the early 1970s by the Peregrine Fund, professor and falconer Heinz Meng, and other private falconer/breeders such as David Jamieson and Les Boyd who bred the first peregrines by means of artificial insemination. In Great Britain, falconer Phillip Glasier of the Falconry Centre in Newent, Gloucestershire, was successful in obtaining young from more than 20 species of captive raptors. A cooperative effort began between various government agencies, non-government organizations, and falconers to supplement various wild raptor populations in peril. This effort was strongest in North America where significant private donations along with funding allocations through the Endangered Species Act of 1972 provided the means to continue the release of captive-bred peregrines, golden eagles, bald eagles, aplomado falcons and others. By the mid-1980s, falconers had become self-sufficient as regards sources of birds to train and fly, in addition to the immensely important conservation benefits conferred by captive breeding.

Between 1972 and 2001, nearly all peregrines used for falconry in the U.S. were captive-bred from the progeny of falcons taken before the U. S. Endangered Species Act was passed, and from those few infusions of wild genes available from Canada and special circumstances. Peregrine falcons were removed from the United States' endangered species list on August 25, 1999.^[31] Finally, after years of close work with the US Fish and Wildlife Service, a limited take of wild peregrines was allowed in 2001, the first wild peregrines taken specifically for falconry in over 30 years.

Some controversy has existed over the origins of captive-breeding stock used by the Peregrine Fund in the recovery of peregrine falcons throughout the contiguous United States. Several peregrine subspecies were included in the breeding stock, including birds of Eurasian origin. Due to the extirpation of the eastern subspecies (Falco peregrinus anatum), its near extirpation in the Midwest, and the limited gene pool within North American breeding stock, the inclusion of non-native subspecies was justified to optimize the genetic diversity found within the species as a whole.^[32] Such strategies are common in endangered species reintroduction scenarios, where dramatic population declines result in a genetic bottleneck and the loss of genetic diversity.

Laws regulating the hunting, import and export of wild falcons vary across Asia, and effective enforcement of current national and international regulations is lacking in some regions. It is possible that the spread of captive-bred falcons in falcon markets in the Arabian Peninsula has mitigated this demand for wild falcons.

The species within the genus Falco are closely related, and some pairings produce viable offspring. The heavy northern gyrfalcon and Asiatic saker are especially closely related, and whether the Altai falcon is a subspecies of the saker or descendants of naturally occurring hybrids is not known. Peregrine and prairie falcons have been observed breeding in the wild and have produced offspring.^[33] These pairings are thought to be rare, but extra-pair copulations between closely related species may occur more frequently and/or account for most natural occurring hybridization. Some male first-generation hybrids may have viable sperm, whereas very few first-generation female hybrids lay fertile eggs. Thus, naturally occurring hybridization is thought to be somewhat insignificant to gene flow in raptor species.

The first hybrid falcons produced in captivity occurred in western Ireland when veteran falconer Ronald Stevens and John Morris put a male saker and a female peregrine into the same moulting mews for the spring and early summer, and the two mated and produced offspring.

Captive-bred hybrid falcons have been available since the late 1970s, and enjoyed a meteoric rise in popularity in North America and the UK in the 1990s. Hybrids were initially "created" to combine the horizontal speed and size of the gyrfalcon with the good disposition and aerial ability of the peregrine. Hybrid falcons first gained large popularity throughout the Arabian Peninsula, feeding a demand for particularly large and aggressive female falcons capable and willing to take on the very large houbara bustard, the classic falconry quarry in the deserts of the West Asia. These falcons were also very popular with Arab falconers, as they tended to withstand a respiratory disease (aspergillosis from the mold genus Aspergillus) in stressful desert conditions better than other pure species from the Northern Hemisphere.

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Some believe that no species of raptor have been in captivity long enough to have undergone successful selective breeding for desired traits. Captive breeding of raptors over several generations tends to result, either deliberately, or inevitably as a result of captivity, in selection for certain traits, including:

• Ability to survive in captivity
• Ability to breed in captivity
• Suitability (in most cases) for interactions with humans for falconry: Birds that demonstrated an unwillingness to hunt with men were most often discarded, rather than being placed in breeding projects
• With gyrfalcons in areas away from their natural Arctic tundra habitat, better disease resistance
• With gyrfalcons, feather color^[34]

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Falconers' birds are inevitably lost on occasion, though most are found again. The main reason birds can be found again is because, during free flights, birds usually wear radio transmitters or bells. The transmitters are in the middle of the tail, on the back, or attached to the bird's legs.

Records of species becoming established in Britain after escaping or being released include:

• Escaped Harris's hawks have bred in the wild in Britain on a few occasions, though no naturalised population has become established.^[35]
• The return of the Eurasian goshawk as a breeding bird to Britain since 1945 is due in large part to falconers' escapes; the earlier British population was wiped out by gamekeepers and egg collectors in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
• A pair of European eagle owls bred in the wild in Yorkshire for several years, feeding largely or entirely on rabbits. The pair are most likely captive escapees. If this will lead to a population becoming established is not yet known.

In 1986, a lost captive-bred female prairie falcon (which had been cross-fostered by an adult peregrine in captivity) mated with a wild male peregrine in Utah. The prairie falcon was trapped and the eggs removed, incubated, and hatched, and the hybrid offspring were given to falconers. The wild peregrine paired with another peregrine the next year.

Falconry in Hawaii is prohibited largely due to the fears of escaped non-native birds of prey becoming established on the island chain and aggravating an already rampant problem of invasive species impacts on native wildlife and plant communities.

In sharp contrast to the US, falconry in Great Britain is permitted without a special license, but a restriction exists of using only captive-bred birds. In the lengthy, record-breaking debates in Westminster during the passage of the 1981 Wildlife and Countryside Bill, efforts were made by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and other lobby groups to have falconry outlawed, but these were successfully resisted. After a centuries-old but informal existence in Britain, the sport of falconry was finally given formal legal status in Great Britain by the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, which allowed it to continue, provided all captive raptors native to the UK were officially ringed and government-registered. DNA testing was also available to verify birds' origins. Since 1982, the British government's licensing requirements have been overseen by the Chief Wildlife Act Inspector for Great Britain, who is assisted by a panel of unpaid assistant inspectors.

British falconers are entirely reliant upon captive-bred birds for their sport. The taking of raptors from the wild for falconry, although permitted by law under government licence, has not been allowed in recent decades.

Anyone is permitted to possess legally registered or captive-bred raptors, although falconers are anxious to point out this is not synonymous with falconry, which specifically entails the hunting of live quarry with a trained bird. A raptor kept merely as a possession for pleasure (like an aviary bird), although the law may allow it, is not considered to be a falconer's bird. Birds may be used for breeding or kept after their hunting days are over, but falconers believe it is preferable that young, fit birds are flown at quarry.

In the United States, falconry is legal in all states except Hawaii, and in the District of Columbia. A falconer must have a state permit to practice the sport. (Requirements for a federal permit were changed in 2008 and the program discontinued effective January 1, 2014.)^[36] Acquiring a falconry license in the United States requires an aspiring falconer to pass a written test, have equipment and facilities inspected, and serve a minimum of two years as an apprentice under a licensed falconer, during which time, the apprentice falconer may only possess one raptor. Three classes of the falconry license have a permit issued jointly by the falconer's state of residence and the federal government. The aforementioned apprentice license matriculates to a general class license, which allows the falconer to up to three raptors at one time. (Some jurisdictions may further limit this.) After a minimum of five years at general level, falconers may apply for a master class license, which allows them to keep up to five wild raptors for falconry and an unlimited number of captive-produced raptors. (All must be used for falconry.) Certain highly experienced master falconers may also apply to possess golden eagles for falconry.

Within the United States, a state's regulations are limited by federal law and treaties protecting raptors. Most states afford falconers an extended hunting season relative to seasons for archery and firearms, but species to be hunted, bag limits, and possession limits remain the same for both. No extended seasons for falconry exist for the hunting of migratory birds such as waterfowl and doves.

Federal regulation of falconry in North America is enforced under the statutes of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 (MBTA), originally designed to address the rampant commercial market hunting of migratory waterfowl during the early 20th century. Birds of prey suffered extreme persecution from the early 20th century through the 1960s, where thousands of birds were shot at conspicuous migration sites, and many state wildlife agencies issued bounties for carcasses.^[37] Due to widespread persecution and further impacts to raptor populations from DDT and other toxins, the act was amended in 1972 to include birds of prey. (Eagles are also protected under the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act of 1959.) Under the MBTA, taking migratory birds, their eggs, feathers, or nests is illegal. Take is defined in the MBTA to "include by any means or in any manner, any attempt at hunting, pursuing, wounding, killing, possessing, or transporting any migratory bird, nest, egg, or part thereof".^[38] Falconers are allowed to trap and otherwise possess certain birds of prey and their feathers with special permits issued by the Migratory Bird Office of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and by state wildlife agencies (issuers of trapping permits).

The Convention on International Trade on Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) restricts the import and export of most native birds species and are listed in the CITES Appendices I, II, and III.

The Wild Bird Conservation Act, legislation put into effect circa 1993, regulates importation of any CITES-listed birds into the United States.

Some controversy exists over the issue of falconer's ownership of captive-bred birds of prey. Falconry permits are issued by states in a manner that entrusts falconers to "take" (trap) and possess permitted birds and use them only for permitted activities, but does not transfer legal ownership. No legal distinction is made between native wild-trapped vs. captive-bred birds of the same species. This legal position is designed to discourage the commercial exploitation of native wildlife.

Evidence suggests that the art of falconry may have begun in Mesopotamia, with the earliest accounts dating to around 2,000 BC. Also, some raptor representations are in the northern Altai, western Mongolia.^[2][39] The falcon was a symbolic bird of ancient Mongol tribes.^[40] Some disagreement exists about whether such early accounts document the practice of falconry (from the Epic of Gilgamesh and others) or are misinterpreted depictions of humans with birds of prey.^{[41][page needed][42][page needed]} During the Turkic Period of Central Asia (seventh century AD), concrete figures of falconers on horseback were described on the rocks in Kyrgyz.^[39] Frederick II of Hohenstaufen (1194–1250) is generally acknowledged as the most significant wellspring of traditional falconry knowledge. He is believed to have obtained firsthand knowledge of Arabic falconry during wars in the region (between June 1228 and June 1229). He obtained a copy of Moamyn's manual on falconry and had it translated into Latin by Theodore of Antioch. Frederick II himself made corrections to the translation in 1241, resulting in De Scientia Venandi per Aves.^[43] King Frederick II is most recognized for his falconry treatise, De arte venandi cum avibus (On The Art of Hunting with Birds). Written himself toward the end of his life, it is widely accepted as the first comprehensive book of falconry, but also notable in its contributions to ornithology and zoology. De arte venandi cum avibus incorporated a diversity of scholarly traditions from east to west, and is one of the earliest challenges to Aristotle's explanations of nature.^{[44][page needed]}

Mughal emperor Jahangir in the desert hunting deer with a falcon., Brooklyn Museum, c. 1600.

Historically, falconry was a popular sport and status symbol among the nobles of medieval Europe, and Asia.^{[citation needed]} Many historical illustrations left in Rashid al Din's "Compendium chronicles" book described falconry of the middle centuries with Mongol images. Falconry was largely restricted to the noble classes due to the prerequisite commitment of time, money, and space. In art and other aspects of culture, such as literature, falconry remained a status symbol long after it was no longer popularly practiced. The historical significance of falconry within lower social classes may be underrepresented in the archaeological record, due to a lack of surviving evidence, especially from nonliterate nomadic and nonagrarian societies. Within nomadic societies such as the Bedouin, falconry was not practiced for recreation by noblemen. Instead, falcons were trapped and hunted on small game during the winter to supplement a very limited diet.^{[46][page needed]}

In the UK and parts of Europe, falconry probably reached its zenith in the 17th century,^[1][2] but soon faded, particularly in the late 18th and 19th centuries, as firearms became the tool of choice for hunting. (This likely took place throughout Europe and Asia in differing degrees.) Falconry in the UK had a resurgence in the late 19th and early 20th centuries when a number of falconry books were published.^[47] This revival led to the introduction of falconry in North America in the early 20th century. Colonel R. Luff Meredith is recognized as the father of North American falconry.^[48]

Throughout the 20th century, modern veterinary practices and the advent of radio telemetry (transmitters attached to free-flying birds) increased the average lifespan of falconry birds, and allowed falconers to pursue quarry and styles of flight that had previously resulted in the loss of their hawk or falcon.

• 722–705 BC – An Assyrian bas-relief found in the ruins at Khorsabad during the excavation of the palace of Sargon II (Sargon II) has been claimed to depict falconry. In fact, it depicts an archer shooting at raptors and an attendant capturing a raptor. A. H. Layard's statement in his 1853 book Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon is "A falconer bearing a hawk on his wrist appeared to be represented in a bas-relief which I saw on my last visit to those ruins."
• 680 BC – Chinese records describe falconry.
• Fourth century BC – Aristotle wrote that in Thrace, the boys who want to hunt small birds, take hawks with them. When they call the hawks addressing them by name, the hawks swoop down on the birds. The small birds fly in terror into the bushes, where the boys catch them by knocking them down with sticks; in case the hawks themselves catch any of the birds, they throw them down to the hunters. When the hunting finishes, the hunters give a portion of all that is caught to the hawks.^[49] He also wrote that in the city of Cedripolis (Κεδρίπολις), men and hawks jointly hunt small birds. The men drive them away with sticks, while the hawks pursue closely, and the small birds in their flight fall into the clutches of the men. Because of this, they share their prey with the hawks.^[50]
• Third century BC – Antigonus of Carystus wrote the same story about the city of Cedripolis.^[51]
• 355 AD – Nihon-shoki, a largely mythical narrative, records hawking first arriving in Japan from Baekje as of the 16th emperor Nintoku.
• Second–fourth century – the Germanic tribe of the Goths learned falconry from the Sarmatians.
• Fifth century – the son of Avitus, Roman Emperor 455–56, from the Celtic tribe of the Arverni, who fought at the Battle of Châlons with the Goths against the Huns, introduced falconry in Rome.
• 500 – a Roman floor mosaic in Argos, Peloponnese depicts a falconer and his hawk hunting ducks.
• Early seventh century – Prey caught by trained dogs or falcons is considered halal in Quran.^[52] By this time, falconry was already popular in the Arabian Peninsula.
• 818 – Japanese Emperor Saga ordered someone to edit a falconry text named Shinshuu Youkyou.
• 875 – Western Europe and Saxon England practiced falconry widely.
• 991 – In the poem The Battle of Maldon describing the Battle of Maldon in Essex, before the battle, the Anglo-Saxons' leader Byrhtnoth says, "let his tame hawk fly from his hand to the wood".
• 1070s – The Bayeux Tapestry shows King Harold of England with a hawk in one scene. The king is said to have owned the largest collection of books on the sport in all of Europe.
• Around 1182 – Niketas Choniates wrote about hawks that are trained to hunt at the Byzantine Empire.^[53]
• Around the 1240s – The treatise of an Arab falconer, Moamyn, was translated into Latin by Master Theodore of Antioch, at the court of Frederick II, it was called De Scientia Venandi per Aves and much copied.
• 1250 – Frederick II wrote in the last years of his life a treatise on the art of hunting with birds: De arte venandi cum avibus.
• 1285 – The Baz-Nama-yi Nasiri, a Persian treatise on falconry, was compiled by Taymur Mirza, an English translation of which was produced in 1908 by D. C. Phillott.^[54]
• 1325 – The Libro de la caza, by the prince of Villena, Don Juan Manuel, includes a detailed description of the best hunting places for falconry in the kingdom of Castile.
• 1390s – In his Libro de la caza de las aves, Castilian poet and chronicler Pero López de Ayala attempts to compile all the available correct knowledge concerning falconry.
• 1486 – See the Boke of Saint Albans
• Early 16th century – Japanese warlord Asakura Norikage (1476–1555) succeeded in captive breeding of Eurasian goshawks.
• 1580s – Spanish drawings of Sambal people recorded in the Boxer Codex showed a culture of falconry in the Philippines.
• 1600s – In Dutch records of falconry, the town of Valkenswaard was almost entirely dependent on falconry for its economy.
• 1660s – Tsar Alexis of Russia writes a treatise that celebrates aesthetic pleasures derived from falconry.
• 1801 – Joseph Strutt of England writes, "the ladies not only accompanied the gentlemen in pursuit of the diversion [falconry], but often practiced it by themselves; and even excelled the men in knowledge and exercise of the art."
• 1864 – The Old Hawking Club is formed in Great Britain.
• 1921 – Deutscher Falkenorden is founded in Germany. Today, it is the largest and oldest falconry club in Europe.
• 1927 – The British Falconers' Club is founded by the surviving members of the Old Hawking Club.
• 1934 – The first US falconry club, the Peregrine Club of Philadelphia, is formed; it became inactive during World War II and was reconstituted in 2013 by Dwight A. Lasure of Pennsylvania.
• 1941 – Falconer's Club of America formed
• 1961 – Falconer's Club of America was defunct
• 1961 – North American Falconers Association formed
• 1968 – International Association for Falconry and Conservation of Birds of Prey formed^[55]
• 1970 – Peregrine falcons were listed as an endangered species in the U.S., due primarily to the use of DDT as a pesticide (35 Federal Register 8495; June 2, 1970).
• 1970 – The Peregrine Fund is founded, mostly by falconers, to conserve raptors, and focusing on peregrine falcons.
• 1972 – DDT banned in the U.S. (EPA press release – December 31, 1972) but continues to be used in Mexico and other nations.
• 1999 – Peregrine falcon removed from the Endangered Species List in the United States, due to reports that at least 1,650 peregrine breeding pairs existed in the U.S. and Canada at that time. (64 Federal Register 46541-558, August 25, 1999)
• 2003 – A population study by the USFWS shows peregrine falcon numbers climbing ever more rapidly, with well over 3000 pairs in North America

  

• 2006 – A population study by the USFWS shows peregrine falcon numbers still climbing. (Federal Register circa September 2006)
• 2008 – USFWS rewrites falconry regulations virtually eliminating federal involvement. Federal Register: October 8, 2008 (Volume 73, Number 196)
• 2010 – Falconry is added to the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)^[21][56]

Medieval Normans distinguished falconry from the sport of 'hawking'.^{[citation needed]} Normans practiced falconry by horseback and 'hawking' by foot.^{[citation needed]} An immediate impact of the Norman Conquest of England was a penchant for falconry enjoyed by Norman nobility.^{[citation needed]} So much so, in fact, that they outlawed commoners from hunting particular lands so that nobility could freely enjoy both sports.^{[citation needed]} Both falconry and 'hawking' were central to Norman cultural identity in medieval times.^{[citation needed]} Normans transported their falcons on a frame called a cadge.^{[citation needed]}

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The often-quoted Book of Saint Albans or Boke of St Albans, first printed in 1486, often attributed to Dame Juliana Berners, provides this hierarchy of hawks and the social ranks for which each bird was supposedly appropriate.

1. Emperor: Eagle, vulture, and merlin
2. King: gyrfalcon and the tercel of the gyrfalcon
3. Prince: falcon gentle and the tercel gentle
4. Duke: falcon of the loch
5. Earl: Peregrine falcon
6. Baron: bustard
7. Knight: sacre and the sacret
8. Esquire: lanere and the laneret
9. Lady: marlyon
10. Young man: hobby
11. Yeoman: goshawk
12. Poor man: tercel
13. Priest: sparrowhawk
14. Holy water clerk: musket
15. Knave or servant: kestrel

This list, however, was mistaken in several respects.

• 1) Vultures are not used for falconry.
• 3) 4) 5) These are usually said to be different names for the peregrine falcon. But there is an opinion that renders 4) as "rock falcon" = a peregrine from remote rocky areas, which would be bigger and stronger than other peregrines. This could also refer to the Scottish peregrine.
• 6) The bustard is not a bird of prey, but a game species that was commonly hunted by falconers; this entry may have been a mistake for buzzard, or for busard which is French for "harrier"; but any of these would be a poor deal for barons; some treat this entry as "bastard hawk", possibly meaning a hawk of unknown lineage, or a hawk that could not be identified.
• 7) Sakers were imported from abroad and very expensive, and ordinary knights and squires would be unlikely to have them.
• 8) Contemporary records have lanners as native to England.
• 10) 15) Hobbies and kestrels are historically considered to be of little use for serious falconry (the French name for the hobby is faucon hobereau, hobereau meaning local/country squire. That may be the source of the confusion), however King Edward I of England sent a falconer to catch hobbies for his use. Kestrels are coming into their own as worthy hunting birds, as modern falconers dedicate more time to their specific style of hunting. While not suitable for catching game for the falconer's table, kestrels are certainly capable of catching enough quarry that they can be fed on surplus kills through the moult.
• 12) An opinion^[57] holds that since the previous entry is the goshawk, this entry ("Ther is a Tercell. And that is for the powere [= poor] man.") means a male goshawk and that here "poor man" means not a labourer or beggar, but someone at the bottom of the scale of landowners.

The relevance of the "Boke" to practical falconry past or present is extremely tenuous, and veteran British falconer Phillip Glasier dismissed it as "merely a formalised and rather fanciful listing of birds".

A book about falconry published in 1973^[58] says:

• Most falconry birds used in Britain were taken from the wild, either in Britain, or taken abroad and then imported.
• Captive breeding was initiated. The book mentions a captive-bred goshawk and a brood of captive-bred red-tailed hawks. It describes as a new and remarkable event captive breeding hybrid young in 1971 and 1972 from John Morris's female saker and Ronald Stevens's peregrine falcon.
• Peregrine falcons were suffering from the post–World War II severe decline caused by pesticides. Taking wild peregrines in Britain was only allowed to train them to keep birds off Royal Air Force airfields to prevent bird strikes.
• The book does not mention telemetry.
• Harris's hawks were known to falconers but unusual. For example, the book lists a falconry meet on four days in August 1971 at White Hill and Leafield in Dumfriesshire in Scotland; the hawks flown were 11 goshawks and one Harris's hawk. The book felt it necessary to say what a Harris's hawk is.
• The usual species for a beginner was a kestrel.
• A few falconers used golden eagles.
• Falcons in falconry would have bells on their legs so the hunters could find them. If the bells fell off the falcon, the hunter would not be able to find his bird easily. The bird usually died if it could not find a way to remove the leather binding on its feet.

Falconry, a living human heritage
UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage
Country	Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Czechia, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Morocco, Netherlands, Pakistan, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Slovakia, South Korea, Spain, Syria, and the United Arab Emirates
Reference	01708
Inscription history
Inscription	2021 (16th session)
List	Representative

In 2010, UNESCO inscribed falconry on its Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity upon the nomination of eleven countries in which it is an important element of their culture: Belgium, the Czech Republic, France, South Korea, Mongolia, Morocco, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Spain, Syria, and the United Arab Emirates. Austria and Hungary were added in 2012; Germany, Italy, Kazakhstan, Pakistan, and Portugal were added in 2016; and Croatia, Ireland, Kyrgyzstan, the Netherlands, Poland, and Slovakia were added in 2021. Nominated by a total of twenty-four countries, falconry is the largest multi-national element on the Representative List.^[59]

In their rationale for inscription on the list, the nominators highlighted that "Originally a means of obtaining food, falconry has acquired other values over time and has been integrated into communities as a social and recreational practice and as a way of connecting with nature. Today, falconry is practised by people of all ages in many countries. As an important cultural symbol in many of those countries, it is transmitted from generation to generation through a variety of means, including through mentoring, within families or in training clubs".^[59]

• In historic literature of Mongols, The Secret History of Mongol is one of earliest books that described Bodonchar Munkhag, first leader of the Borjigan tribe as having first caught a falcon and fed it until spring. Through falconry, he not only survived, but also made it his tribal custom. His eighth-generation descendant Esukhei Baatar (hereo) was also in falconry, and he was the father of Genghis Khan. Through Genghis Khan's Great Mongol empire, this custom was introduced to China, Korea, Japan, and Europe, as well as the Western Asia.
• In the Tale XXXIII of the Tales of Count Lucanor by the prince of Villena, Lo que sucedió a un halcón sacre del infante don Manuel con una garza y un águila, the tale tries to teach a moral based on a story about falconry lived by the father of the author.
• In the ninth novel of the fifth day of Giovanni Boccaccio's The Decameron, a medieval collection of novellas, a falcon is central to the plot: Nobleman Federigo degli Alberighi has wasted his fortune courting his unrequited love until nothing is left but his brave falcon. When his lady comes to see him, he gives her the falcon to eat. Knowing his case, she changes her mind, marries him, and makes him rich.
• Famous explorer Sir Richard Francis Burton wrote an account of falconry in India, Falconry in the Valley of the Indus, first published in 1852 and now available in modern reprints.
• A 17th-century English physician-philosopher, Sir Thomas Browne, wrote a short essay on falconry.^[60]
• T.H. White was a falconer and wrote The Goshawk about his attempt to train a hawk in the traditional art of falconry. Falconry is also featured and discussed in The Once and Future King.
• In Virginia Henley's historical romance books, The Falcon and the Flower, The Dragon and the Jewel, The Marriage Prize, The Border Hostage, and Infamous, numerous mentions to the art of falconry are made, as these books are set at dates ranging from the 1150s to the 16th century.
• The main character, Sam Gribley, in the children's novel My Side of the Mountain, is a falconer. His trained falcon is named Frightful.
• William Bayer's novel Peregrine set in the world of falconry, about a rogue peregrine falcon in New York City, won the 1982 Edgar Allan Poe Award for Best Mystery.
• Actress Stana Katic, known for her role as Kate Beckett in Castle, enjoys falconry in her spare time.^[61] She has said that "It gives me self-respect."
• In the book and movie The Falcon and the Snowman about two Americans who sold secrets to the Soviets, one of the two main characters, Christopher Boyce, is a falconer.
• In The Royal Tenenbaums, Richie keeps a falcon named Mordecai on the roof of his home in Brooklyn.
• In James Clavell's Shōgun, Toranaga, one of the main characters, practices falconry throughout the book, often during or immediately before or after important plot events. His thoughts also reveal an analogy between his falconry and his use of other characters towards his ends.
• The 1985 film Ladyhawke involved a medieval warrior who carried a red-tailed hawk as a pet, but in truth, the hawk was actually his lover, who had been cursed by an evil bishop to keep the two apart.
• In The Dark Tower series, the main character, Roland, uses a hawk named David, to win a trial by combat to become a Gunslinger.
• "The Falconer" is a recurring sketch on Saturday Night Live, featuring Will Forte as a falconer who constantly finds himself in mortal peril and must rely on his loyal falcon, Donald, to rescue him.
• Gabriel García Márquez's novel Chronicle of a Death Foretold's main character, Santiago Nasar, and his father are falconers.
• Hodgesaargh is a falconer based in Lancre Castle in Terry Pratchett's Discworld books. He is an expert and dedicated falconer who unluckily seems to only keep birds that enjoy attacking him.
• Fantasy author Mercedes Lackey is a falconer and often adds birds of prey to her novels. Among the Tayledras or Hawkbrother race in her Chronicles of Valdemar, everyone bonds with a specially bred raptor called a bondbird, which has limited powers of speech mind-to-mind and can scout and hunt for its human bondmate.
• Crime novelist Andy Straka is a falconer and his Frank Pavlicek private eye series features a former NYPD homicide detective and falconer as protagonist. The books include A Witness Above, A Killing Sky, Cold Quarry (2001, 2002, 2003), and Kitty Hitter (2009).
• In Irish poet William Butler Yeats's poem, "The Second Coming", Yeats uses the image of "The falcon cannot hear the falconer" as a metaphor for social disintegration.
• American poet Robert Duncan's poem "My Mother Would Be a Falconress"^[62]
• The comic book Gold Ring by Qais M. Sedki and Akira Himekawa features falconers and falcons.
• The Marvel Comics character Falcon is both named after the animal, but is a falconer himself, fighting crime with his falcon Redwing.
• C. J. Box's Joe Pickett series of novels has a recurring character, Nate Romanowski, who is a falconer.
• A Kestrel for a Knave is a novel by British author Barry Hines, published in 1968. It is set in Barnsley, South Yorkshire, and tells of Billy Casper, a young working-class boy troubled at home and at school, who only finds solace when he finds and trains a kestrel, which he names "Kes". The film made from the book in 1969 by Ken Loach is also called Kes. Barry Hines was inspired by his younger brother Richard, who like Billy Casper, took kestrels from the wild and trained them. (He trained the three hawks used in the film Kes.) He has written of this in his memoir No Way But Gentleness: A Memoir of How Kes, My Kestrel, Changed My Life (Bloomsbury, 2016).
• In the book Flight of the Dragon Kyn by Susan Fletcher, the protagonist helps train an arctic gyrfalcon as she befriends the king's falconer.
• H is for Hawk (Vintage, 2015) by Helen Macdonald, which won the Samuel Johnson Prize and Costa Book of the Year prizes in 2014, tells of how she trained a goshawk and mourned her father in the same year. It has echoes of T.H. White's The Goshawk.
• Dragonheart features Brok, the brutal knight for the iron fisted King Einon, who proved a capable falconer and owns a falcon.
• On The Mummy Returns, Ardeth Bay proved a capable falconer and owned a saker falcon named after the Egyptian god Horus. Sadly, while delivering a message, Horus was shot to death by Lock-Nah with a rifle.
• Avatar: The Last Airbender featured falconry, involving many using messenger hawks to deliver messages. The assassin Combustion Man utilized a raven eagle to intercept a messenger hawk carrying information about Aang's whereabouts, keeping Aang's survival after the coup in Ba Sing Se a secret.

These English language words and idioms are derived from falconry:

Expression	Meaning in falconry	Derived meaning
Haggard[63]	Of a hawk, caught from the wild when adult	Looking exhausted and unwell, in poor condition; wild or untamed
Lure[64]	Originally a device used to recall hawks. The hawks, when young, were trained to associate the device (usually a bunch of feathers) with food.	To tempt with a promise/reward/bait
Rouse[65]	To shake one's feathers	Stir or awaken
Pounce[66]	Referring to a hawk's claws, later derived to refer to birds springing or swooping to catch prey	Jump forward to seize or attack something
To turn tail[67]	Fly away	To turn and run away

• Abu Dhabi Falcon Hospital
• Animal training
• Anti-hunting
• Car hawking
• Falconer's knot
• Falconry training and technique
• Hack (falconry)
• Hunting
• Hunting dog
• Hunting with eagles
• Jess (falconry)
• Parahawking
• Puppet-rearing
• Takagari
• Ferreting

• Ash, Lydia, Modern Apprentice: site for North Americans interested in falconry. Much information for this entry was due to her research.
• Beebe, FL; Webster, HM (2000), North American Falconry and Hunting Hawks (8th ed.), North American Falconry and Hunting Hawks, ISBN 0-685-66290-X.
• Chenu, Jean Charles; Des Murs, Marc Athanase Parfait Œillet (1862). La fauconnerie, ancienne et moderne. Paris: Librairie L. Hachette et Cie.
• Chiorino, G. E. (1906). Il Manuale del moderno Falconiere. Milan: Ulrico Hoepli.
• Fernandes Ferreira (b. 1546), Diogo; Cordeiro (1844–1900), Luciano (1899). Arte da caça de altaneria. Lisbon: Lisboa Escriptorio.cite book: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
• Freeman, Gage Earle; Salvin, Francis Henry (1859). Falconry : Its Claims, History and Practice. London: Longman, Green, Longman and Roberts.
• Freeman, Gage Earle (1869). Practical falconry – to which is added, How I became a falconer. London: Horace Cox.
• Fuertes, Louis Agassiz; Wetmore, Alexander (1920). "Falconry, the sport of kings". National Geographic Magazine. 38 (6).
• García, Beatriz E. Candil; Hartman, Arjen E (2007), Ars Accipitraria: An Essential Dictionary for the Practice of Falconry and hawking, London: Yarak, ISBN 978-0-9555607-0-5 (the excerpt on the language of falconry comes from this book).
• ——— (2008), The Red-tailed Hawk: The Great Unknown, London: Yarak, ISBN 978-0-9555607-4-3.
• Harting, James Edmund (1891). Bibliotheca Accipitraria: A Catalogue of Books Ancient and Modern Relating to Falconry, with notes, glossary and vocabulary. London: Bernard Quaritch.
• López de Ayala (1332–1407), Pedro; de la Cueva, duque de Albuquerque (d. 1492), Beltrán; de Gayangos (1809–1897), Pascual; Lafuente y Alcántara, Emilio (1869). El libro de las aves de caça. Madrid: M. Galiano.cite book: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
• Latini (1220–1295), Brunetto; Bono (c. 1240 – c. 1292), Giamboni (1851). de Mortara, Alessandro (ed.). Scritture antiche toscane di falconeria ed alcuni capitoli nell' originale francese del Tesoro di Brunetto Latini sopra la stessa materia. Prato: Tipografia F. Alberghetti e C.cite book: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
• Phillott, Douglas Craven; al-Dawlah Timur Mirza, Husam (1908). The Baz-nama-yi Nasiri, a Persian treatise on falconry. London: Bernard Quaritch.
• Riesenthal, Oskar von (1876). Die Raubvögel Deutschlands und des angrenzenden Mitteleuropas; Darstellung und Beschreibung der in Deutschland und den benachbarten Ländern von Mitteleuropa vorkommenden Raubvögel. Cassel, Germany: Verlag von Theodor Fischer.
• Deva, Raja of Kumaon, Rudra; Shastri (tr.), Hara Prasad (1910). Syanika satra: or a book on hawking. Calcutta: Asiatic Society.
• Soma, Takuya. 2012. ‘Contemporary Falconry in Altai-Kazakh in Western Mongolia’The International Journal of Intangible Heritage (vol.7), pp. 103–111. [1] Archived 2017-06-21 at the Wayback Machine
• Soma, Takuya. 2013. 'Ethnographic Study of Altaic Kazakh Falconers', Falco: The Newsletter of the Middle East Falcon Research Group 41, pp. 10–14. [2]

• IAF – International Association for Falconry and Conservation of Birds of Prey.

 

 

Dubai دبي Dubayy
City
Dubai's skyline Burj Khalifa and Downtown Dubai Creek Dubai Marina Palm Jumeirah and The World Islands Burj Al Arab Sheikh Zayed Road
Flag Seal   Wordmark
Nicknames:  DXB, Dar Al-Hay, The Pearl of the Gulf,[1] The Venice of the Gulf,[2] The City of the World,[2] The City of Gold[3]
Dubai Dubai in United Arab Emirates Show in UAE   Show OpenStreetMap Show satellite map		Show in Persian Gulf	Show in Middle East	Show in Asia
Coordinates: 25°12′17″N 55°16′15″E / 25.20472°N 55.27083°E / 25.20472; 55.27083
Country	United Arab Emirates
Emirate	Dubai
First mentioned	1095
First established	1822
Founded by	Obeid bin Said & Maktoum bin Butti Al Maktoum
Government
• Type	Absolute monarchy
• Body	Dubai Executive Council
• Director General of Dubai Municipality	Marwan Bin Ghalita[4]
• Ruler of Dubai	Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum
Area [5]
• Urban	1,491 km2 (576 sq mi)
• Metro	3,913 km2 (1,511 sq mi)
Population  (2025)[6]
• City	3,944,751
• Rank	1st
• Urban [7]	4,945,000
• Urban density	3,317/km2 (8,590/sq mi)
• Metro [6]	6,359,527
• Metro density	1,625/km2 (4,209/sq mi)
Demonym	Dubaian
GDP [8]
• City	US$ 134.6 billion (2023)
• Metro	US$ 202.8 billion (2023)
Time zone	UTC+04:00 (UAE Standard Time)
Climate	Hot desert climate (BWh)
Website	tec.gov.ae/en/web/tec/home

Dubai^[a] is the most populous city in the United Arab Emirates and the capital of the Emirate of Dubai.^[10] It is on a creek on the southeastern coast of the Persian Gulf. As of 2025, its population stands at 4 million,^[6] 92% of whom are expatriates.^[11] The wider urban area includes Sharjah and has a population of 5 million people as of 2023,^[7] while the Dubai–Sharjah–Ajman metropolitan area has a population of 6 million people.

Founded in the early 18th century as a pearling and fishing settlement, Dubai became a regional trade hub in the 20th century after declaring itself a free port (1901) and extending the Creek (1961).^[12] Modest oil revenue helped accelerate Dubai's development from the 1960s to the 1990s, when the city started to diversify its economy.^[12] In 2018, oil production contributed less than 1% to the emirate's GDP.^[13]

Rapid construction since the 1990s has produced one of the world's densest skylines,^[14] including the world's tallest building, the Burj Khalifa. Extensive land-reclamation projects have added more than 300 kilometres (190 mi) of artificial coastline. The city has a large real estate market, especially in the luxury segment.^[15]

Dubai's economy centres on trade, tourism, aviation, financial services, and real estate.^[12][16] The Dubai International Financial Centre (DIFC) is one of the world's major financial centres. In 2024, Dubai was the seventh most-visited city globally.^[17] Dubai International Airport (DXB) is the world's busiest airport for international passenger traffic, handling over 92 million passengers in 2024.^[18]

Many theories have been proposed about the origin of the word "Dubai". One theory suggests the word used to be the souq in Ba.^[19] The linguist Zana Vahidzadeh (Dana Pishdar) holds that the word comes from 'money', a reference to the prosperity of the trading centre or that the word refers to 'two brothers'—Deira and Bur Dubai.^[20][21]

The poet and scholar Ahmad Mohammad Obaid traces it to the same word, but to its alternative meaning of "baby locust" (جراد) due to the abundance of locusts in the area before settlement.^[22]

The history of human settlement in the area now defined by the United Arab Emirates is complex and extensive. It points to extensive trading links between the civilisations of the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia, and even as far afield as the Levant.^[23] Archaeological finds in the emirate of Dubai, particularly at Al-Ashoosh, Al Sufouh, and the notably rich trove from Saruq Al Hadid^[24] show settlement through the Ubaid and Hafit periods, the Umm Al Nar and Wadi Suq periods, and the three Iron Ages in the UAE. The area was known to the Sumerians as Magan and was a source of metallic goods, notably copper and bronze.^[25]

The area was covered with sand about 5,000 years ago as the coast retreated inland, becoming part of the city's present coastline.^[26] Pre-Islamic ceramics have been found from the 3rd and 4th centuries.^[27] Before the introduction of Islam to the area, people in this region worshiped Bajir (or Bajar).^[27] After the spread of Islam in the region, the Umayyad Caliph of the eastern Islamic world conquered southeast Arabia and drove out the Sassanians. Excavations by the Dubai Museum in the region of Al-Jumayra (Jumeirah) found several artefacts from the Umayyad period.^[28]

An early mention of Dubai in 1095 is in the Book of Geography by the Andalusian-Arab geographer Abu Abdullah al-Bakri.^[29] The Venetian pearl merchant Gasparo Balbi visited the area in 1580 and mentioned Dubai (as Dibei) for its pearling industry.^[28]

Dubai is thought to have been established as a pearling and fishing village in the early 18th century^[30] and was, by 1822, a town of some 700–800 members of the Bani Yas tribe and subject to the rule of Sheikh Tahnun bin Shakhbut of Abu Dhabi.^[31] In 1822, a British naval surveyor noted that Dubai was at that time populated by a thousand people living in an oval-shaped town surrounded by a mud wall, scattered with goats and camels. The main footpath out of the village led to a reedy creek, while another trailed off into the desert and merged into caravan routes.^[32]: 17

In 1833, after tribal feuds, members of the Al Bu Falasah tribe seceded from Abu Dhabi and established themselves in Dubai. The exodus from Abu Dhabi was led by Obeid bin Saeed and Maktoum bin Butti, who became joint leaders of Dubai until Ubaid died in 1836, leaving Maktoum to establish the Maktoum dynasty.^[30]

Dubai signed the General Maritime Treaty of 1820 with the British government along with other Trucial States, following the British campaign in 1819 against Ras Al Khaimah. This led to the 1853 Perpetual Maritime Truce. Dubai also—like its neighbours on the Trucial Coast—entered into an exclusivity agreement in which the United Kingdom took responsibility for the emirate's security in 1892.

In 1841, a smallpox epidemic broke out in Bur Dubai, forcing residents to relocate east to Deira.^[33] In 1896, fire broke out in Dubai, a disastrous occurrence in a town where many family homes were still constructed from barasti (palm fronds). The conflagration consumed half of Bur Dubai's houses, while the Deira district was said to have been destroyed. The next year, more fires broke out. An enslaved woman was caught in the act of starting one such blaze and was put to death.^[34]

In 1901, Maktoum bin Hasher Al Maktoum established Dubai as a free port with no taxation on imports or exports, and also gave merchants parcels of land and guarantees of protection and tolerance. These policies led merchants not only to move directly from Lingeh, but also from those who had settled in Ras Al Khaimah and Sharjah (which had historical links with Lingeh through the Al Qawasim tribe) to Dubai.^[35] An indicator of the growing importance of the port of Dubai is the movements of the steamer of the Bombay and Persia Steam Navigation Company, which from 1899 to 1901 paid five visits annually to Dubai. In 1902, the company's vessels made 21 visits to Dubai, and from 1904 on,^[36] the steamers called fortnightly, trading 70,000 tons of cargo in 1906.^[37] The frequency of these vessels only accelerated Dubai's role as an emerging port and trading hub of preference. Lorimer notes the transfer from Lingeh "bids fair to become complete and permanent",^[38] and also that the town had by 1906 supplanted Lingeh as the chief entrepôt of the Trucial States.^[39]

The "great storm" of 1908 struck the pearling boats of Dubai and the coastal emirates towards the end of the pearling season that year, resulting in the loss of a dozen boats and over 100 men. The disaster was a major setback for Dubai, with many families losing their breadwinners and merchants facing financial ruin. These losses came at a time when the tribes of the interior were also experiencing poverty. In a letter to the Sultan of Muscat in 1911, Butti laments, "Misery and poverty are raging among them, with the result that they are struggling, looting and killing among themselves."^[40]

In 1910, in the Hyacinth incident, the town was bombarded by HMS Hyacinth, with 37 people killed.

As well as expanding its regional trade links, Dubai was also an important regional centre for the collection, sale, and trade of pearls. The collapse of the pearling industry^[when?] plunged the city into a deep depression, and many residents lived in poverty or migrated to other parts of the Persian Gulf.^[26]

In 1937, an oil exploration contract was signed, guaranteeing royalty rights for Dubai and concessionary payments to Sheikh Saeed bin Maktoum. But due to World War II, oil was not struck until 1966.^{[32]: 36–37}

In its early days, Dubai was constantly at odds with Abu Dhabi. In 1947, a border dispute between Dubai and Abu Dhabi on the northern sector of their border escalated into war.^[41] Arbitration by the British government resulted in a cessation of hostilities.^[42]

Despite a lack of oil, Dubai's ruler from 1958, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, used revenue from trading activities to build infrastructure, initially through loans raised from local merchants and the ruler of Kuwait. Private companies were established to build and operate infrastructure, including electricity, telephone services, and both the ports and airport operators.^[43] An airport of sorts (a runway built on salt flats) was established in Dubai in the 1950s and in 1959, the emirate's first hotel, the Airlines Hotel, was constructed. This was followed by the Ambassador and Carlton Hotels in 1968.^[44]

Throughout the late 1950s, the British had urged Sheikh Rashid to approve a town plan to manage an already burgeoning real estate market. In 1959, through the correspondence of the British political agent, Sheikh Rashid invited architect John Harris to Dubai to discuss the parameters of a town plan. In May 1960, Harris returned to Dubai with the plan. Harris, who ran his own architectural practice, had only a matter of weeks to create the plan after receiving aerial photographs of the city that spring. No later than 1961, the British engineering firm Halcrow was marking the city's street system as shown on the plan and hardening designated routes with asphalt. The plan continued to function as a guide for further extensions of Dubai's street system as municipal funding became available. Harris's plan made only minimal proposals to disrupt the commercial and social life in the existing areas of Bur Dubai and Deira. Therefore, new development was proposed outside these areas, further inland from the Gulf. While the town plan of 1960 envisioned a very low-rise city that was not realised, its proposed road system was largely implemented as planned. Harris's firm acted independently of Halcrow, but the plan's accurate representation of ongoing land reclamation and the future Maktoum Bridge, which had not yet been proposed to the municipality, suggests that the two firms kept an open line of communication. The master plan's road system also served as a guide for the municipality in designating utility easements, as these became increasingly necessary.^[45][46]

In 1959, Dubai's first telephone company was established, with 51% owned by IAL (International Aeradio Ltd) and 49% by Sheikh Rashid and local businesspeople. In 1961, both the electricity and telephone companies rolled out operational networks.^[47] The water company (Rashid was chairman and majority shareholder) constructed a pipeline from wells at Awir and a series of storage tanks and, by 1968, Dubai had a reliable supply of piped water.^[47] The same year, a sand tax was briefly imposed by Rashid in an effort to boost trade by monetising the Emirate's most abundant resource. The tax was lifted after 11 days, making it the shortest-lived tax in the region's history.^[48][49]

On 7 April 1961, the Dubai-based MV Dara, a five-thousand-ton British-flagged vessel that plied the route between Basra (Iraq), Kuwait, and Bombay (Mumbai, India), was caught in unusually high winds off Dubai. Early the next morning, in heavy seas off Umm al-Quwain, an explosion tore out the second-class cabins and started fires. The captain gave the order to abandon ship, but two lifeboats capsized, and a second explosion occurred. A flotilla of small boats from Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, and Umm al-Quwain picked up survivors, but 238 of the 819 persons on board were lost in the disaster.^[50]

Construction of Dubai's first airport began on the northern edge of the town in 1959, and the terminal building opened for business in September 1960. The airport was initially serviced by Gulf Aviation (flying Dakotas, Herons, and Viscounts) but Iran Air commenced services to Shiraz in 1961.^[47]

In 1962, the British Political Agent noted that "Many new houses and blocks of offices and flats are being built... the Ruler is determined, against advice [from the British authorities] to press on with the construction of a jet airport... More and more European and Arab firms are opening up, and the future looks bright."^[44]

In 1962, with expenditure on infrastructure projects already approaching levels some thought imprudent, Sheikh Rashid approached his brother-in-law, the Ruler of Qatar, for a loan to build the first bridge crossing Dubai Creek. This crossing was completed in May 1963 and was paid for by a toll levied on traffic from the Dubai side of the creek to Deira.^[43]

BOAC was initially reluctant to launch regular flights between Bombay and Dubai, fearing insufficient seat demand. However, by the time the asphalt runway of Dubai Airport was constructed in 1965, opening Dubai to both regional and long-haul traffic, several foreign airlines were competing for landing rights.^[43] In 1970, a new airport terminal building was constructed, which included Dubai's first duty-free shops.^[51]

Throughout the 1960s, Dubai was the centre of a lively gold trade, with 1968 imports of gold at some £56 million. This gold was, in the vast majority, re-exported – mainly to customers who took delivery in international waters off India. The import of gold to India had been banned, and so the trade was characterised as smuggling. However, Dubai's merchants were quick to point out that they were making legal gold deliveries and that it was up to the customer where they took it.^[52]

In 1966, more gold was shipped from London to Dubai than from almost anywhere else in the world (only France and Switzerland shipped more), totaling 4 million ounces. Dubai also took delivery of over $15 million worth of watches and over 5 million ounces of silver. The 1967 price of gold was $35 an ounce, but its market price in India was $68 an ounce – a healthy markup. Estimates at the time put the volume of gold imports from Dubai to India at around 75% of the total market.^[53]

After years of exploration following large finds in neighbouring Abu Dhabi, oil was eventually discovered in territorial waters off Dubai in 1966, albeit in far smaller quantities. The first field was named "Fateh" or "good fortune". This accelerated Sheikh Rashid's infrastructure development plans and triggered a construction boom, resulting in a massive influx of foreign workers, primarily from Asia and the Middle East. Between 1968 and 1975, the city's population grew by over 300%.^[54]

As part of the infrastructure for pumping and transporting oil from the Fateh field, located offshore of the Jebel Ali area of Dubai, two 500,000-gallon storage tanks were built, known locally as "Kazzans",^[55] by welding them together on the beach and then digging them out and floating them to drop onto the seabed at the Fateh field. These were constructed by the Chicago Bridge & Iron Company, which gave the beach its local name (Chicago Beach), which was transferred to the Chicago Beach Hotel, which was demolished and replaced by the Jumeirah Beach Hotel in the late 1990s. The Kazzans were an innovative oil storage solution which meant supertankers could moor offshore even in bad weather and avoided the need to pipe oil onshore from Fateh, which is some 60 miles out to sea.^[56]

Dubai had already embarked on a period of infrastructural development and expansion. Oil revenue, flowing from 1969 onwards, supported a period of growth, with Sheikh Rashid embarking on a policy of building infrastructure and diversifying the economy before the emirate's limited reserves were depleted. Oil accounted for 24% of GDP in 1990 but had fallen to 7% of GDP by 2004.^[57]

Critically, one of the first major projects Sheikh Rashid embarked upon when oil revenue began to flow was the construction of Port Rashid, a deep-water free port built by the British company Halcrow. Originally intended to be a four-berth port, it was extended to sixteen berths during construction.^[58] The project was an outstanding success, with shipping queuing to access the new facilities. The port was inaugurated on 5 October 1972, although its berths were put to use as soon as they were built. Port Rashid was to be expanded in 1975 by 35 berths before the larger Jebel Ali port was constructed.^[57]

Port Rashid was the first of a swath of projects designed to create a modern trading infrastructure, including roads, bridges, schools, and hospitals.^[59]

Dubai and the other "Trucial States" had long been a British protectorate where the British government took care of foreign policy and defence, as well as arbitrating between the rulers of the Eastern Gulf, the result of a treaty signed in 1892 named the "Exclusive Agreement". This was to change with Prime Minister Harold Wilson's announcement, on 16 January 1968, that all British troops were to be withdrawn from "East of Aden". The decision was to pitch the coastal emirates, together with Qatar and Bahrain, into fevered negotiations to fill the political vacuum left by the British withdrawal.^[60]

The principle of union was first agreed upon between the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, and Sheikh Rashid of Dubai on 18 February 1968, at a meeting in an encampment at Argoub Al Sedirah, near Al Semeih, a desert stop between the two emirates.^[61] The two agreed to work towards bringing the other emirates, including Qatar and Bahrain, into the union. Over the next two years, negotiations and meetings of the rulers followed—often stormy—as a form of union was thrashed out. The nine-state union never recovered from the October 1969 meeting, when British intervention against aggressive actions by two of the Emirates prompted walkouts by Bahrain and Qatar. They dropped out of talks, leaving six of the seven "trucial" emirates to agree on a union on 18 July 1971.^[62]

On 2 December 1971, Dubai, together with Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm al-Quwain, and Fujairah, joined in the Act of Union to form the United Arab Emirates. The seventh emirate, Ras Al Khaimah, joined the UAE on 10 February 1972, following Iran's annexation of the RAK-claimed Tunbs islands.^[63]

In 1973, Dubai, along with the other emirates, adopted a uniform currency: the UAE dirham.^[64] In that same year, the prior monetary union with Qatar was dissolved, and the UAE dirham was introduced throughout the Emirates.^[65]

Throughout the 1970s, Dubai experienced continued growth fuelled by oil and trade revenues, even as the city witnessed an influx of immigrants fleeing the Lebanese civil war.^[66] Border disputes between the emirates persisted even after the formation of the UAE; it was only in 1979 that a formal compromise was reached, putting an end to disagreements.^[67] In 1979, the establishment of the Jebel Ali port, a deep-water port accommodating larger ships, marked a significant development. Initially facing challenges, Sheikh Mohammed established JAFZA (Jebel Ali Free Zone) around the port in 1985, facilitating the unrestricted import of labour and the export of capital for foreign companies.^[68] Simultaneously, Dubai airport and the aviation industry continued their expansion.

The Gulf War in early 1991 had a negative financial impact on the city, as depositors and traders withdrew funds and halted trading. But Dubai rebounded in a changing political climate and prospered. In the late 1990s, various foreign trading communities—initially from Kuwait during the Gulf War and later from Bahrain amid the Shia unrest—relocated to Dubai.^[69] Dubai served as a refuelling base for allied forces at the Jebel Ali Free Zone during the Gulf War and again during the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. Subsequent significant increases in oil prices prompted Dubai to maintain its focus on free trade and tourism.^[70]

In the early 2000s, construction of artificial islands off Dubai's coast, known as the Palm Islands and The World Islands, began.^[71] The Burj Khalifa opened in Dubai in 2010, surpassing the Taipei 101 to become the tallest skyscraper in the world.^[72]

Dubai's smart city initiatives, including smart tourism, play a key role in advancing the city's growth ambitions, primarily through the Smart Dubai project.^[73] In 2016, the world's first functioning 3D-printed office building was opened in Dubai,^[74] having taken 17 days to build.^[74] Its architect, Killa Design, was the same architect that designed the Museum of the Future.^[75] The construction of Dubai Frame, a 150-meter marvel, commenced in 2014, and was completed in 2017.^[76]

Dubai is on the Persian Gulf coast of the United Arab Emirates and roughly at sea level (16 m or 52 ft above). The emirate of Dubai borders Abu Dhabi to the south, Sharjah to the northeast, and the Sultanate of Oman to the southeast. Hatta, a minor exclave of the emirate, is surrounded on three sides by Oman and by the emirates of Ajman (in the west) and Ras Al Khaimah (in the north). The Persian Gulf borders the western coast of the emirate. Dubai is positioned at

25°16′11″N 55°18′34″E / 25.2697°N 55.3095°E / 25.2697; 55.3095 and has an area of 1,588 sq mi (4,110 km²), a significant expansion beyond its initial 1,500 sq mi (3,900 km²) designation due to land reclamation from the sea.^[77][78]

Dubai lies directly in the Arabian Desert. Still, its topography differs significantly from that of the southern UAE, with much of Dubai's landscape characterized by sandy desert patterns. In contrast, gravel deserts dominate much of the country's south.^[79] The sand consists mostly of crushed shells and coral and is fine, clean, and white. East of the city, the salt-crusted coastal plains, known as sabkha, give way to a north–south running line of dunes. Farther east, the dunes grow larger and are tinged red with iron oxide.^[54]

The flat sandy desert gives way to the Western Hajar Mountains, which run alongside Dubai's border with Oman at Hatta. The Western Hajar chain has an arid, jagged, and shattered landscape, whose mountains rise to about 1,300 metres (4,265 feet) in some places. Dubai has no natural rivers or oases, but it does have a natural inlet, Dubai Creek, which has been dredged to allow large vessels to pass. Dubai also has multiple gorges and waterholes dotting the base of the Western Al Hajar mountains. A vast sea of dunes covers much of southern Dubai and leads into the desert known as The Empty Quarter. Seismically, Dubai is in a very stable zone—the nearest seismic fault line, the Zagros Fault, is 200 kilometres (124 miles) from the UAE and unlikely to affect Dubai.^[80] Experts also say the probability of a tsunami in the region is minimal because the Persian Gulf waters are not deep enough to trigger one.^[80]

The sandy desert surrounding the city supports wild grasses and occasional date palms. Desert hyacinths grow in the sabkha plains east of the city. In contrast, acacia and ghaf trees grow in the flat plains within the proximity of the Western Al Hajar mountains. Several Indigenous trees, such as the date palm and neem, as well as imported trees, such as the eucalyptus and jacaranda, grow in Dubai's natural parks. The MacQueen's bustard, striped hyena, caracal, desert fox, falcon, and Arabian oryx are common in Dubai's desert. Dubai is on the migration path between Europe, Asia, and Africa, and more than 320 migratory bird species pass through it in spring and autumn. The waters of Dubai are home to more than 300 fish species, including the hammour. Marine life off the coast of Dubai includes tropical fish, jellyfish, coral, dugong, dolphins, whales, and sharks. Various types of turtles are also found in the area, including the hawksbill turtle and green turtle, which are listed as endangered species.^[81][82]

Dubai features a hot desert climate (Köppen BWh). Summers are extremely hot, prolonged, windy, and humid, with an average high around 40 °C (104 °F) and overnight lows around 30 °C (86 °F) in the hottest month, August. Most days are sunny throughout the year. Winters are mild to warm, with an average high of 24 °C (75 °F) and overnight lows of 14 °C (57 °F) in January, the coolest month.

Dubai summers are also known for very high humidity, which can make them uncomfortable for many, with exceptionally high dew points that can exceed 30 °C (86 °F). Heat index values can reach over 60 °C (140 °F) at the height of summer.^[83] The highest recorded temperature in Dubai is 49.0 °C (120.2 °F).

Very dry, Dubai's average annual precipitation is 79.2 mm (3.12 in). But precipitation has been increasing over the last few decades, with annual precipitation reaching 110.7 mm (4.36 in).^[84] Record-setting flooding inundated Dubai in April 2024, demonstrating a lack of appropriate drainage to deal with the immense challenges precipitated by climate change.^[85]

Dubai has been ruled by the Al Maktoum family since 1833; the emirate is an absolute monarchy. Dubai citizens participate in the electoral college to vote representatives to the Federal National Council of the UAE. The ruler, Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, is also the vice-president and Prime Minister of the United Arab Emirates and a member of the Supreme Council of the Union (SCU). Dubai appoints eight members to the Federal National Council (FNC) of the UAE, the supreme federal legislative body, for two-term periods.^[91]

The Dubai Municipality (DM) was established by the then ruler of Dubai, Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, in 1954 for purposes of city planning, citizen services, and upkeep of local facilities.^[92] It has since then evolved into an autonomous subnational authority, collectively known as the Government of Dubai, which is responsible for both the city of Dubai and the greater emirate.^[93] The Government of Dubai has over 58 governmental departments responsible for security, economic policy, education, transportation, immigration, and is one of only three emirates to have a separate judicial system independent from the federal judiciary of the UAE.^[94] The Ruler of Dubai is the head of government and emir (head of state) and laws, decrees, and court judgments are issued in his name, however, since 2003, executive authority of managing and overseeing Dubai Governmental agencies has been delegated to the Dubai Executive Council, led by the Crown Prince of Dubai Hamdan bin Mohammed Al Maktoum. Although no legislative assembly exists, the traditional open majlis (council), where citizens and representatives of the Ruler meet, is often used for feedback on certain domestic issues.^[95][96]

Historical population

Year	Pop.	±%
1822[33]	1,200	—
1900[97]	10,000	+733.3%
1930[98]	20,000	+100.0%
1940[33]	38,000	+90.0%
1960[99]	40,000	+5.3%
1968[100]	58,971	+47.4%
1975[101]	183,000	+210.3%
1985[102]	370,800	+102.6%
1995[102]	674,000	+81.8%
2005	1,204,000	+78.6%
2010[103]	1,905,476	+58.3%
2015[104]	2,446,675	+28.4%
2019[105]	3,355,900	+37.2%
c-census; e-estimate

As of September 2019^[update], the population is 3,331,420 – an annual increase of 177,020 people, which represents a growth rate of 5.64%.^[106] The region covers 1,287.5 square kilometres (497.1 mi²). The population density is 408.18/km² – more than eight times that of the entire country. Dubai is the second-most-expensive city in the region and the 20th-most-expensive city in the world.^[107]

As of 2013^[update], only about 15% of the emirate's population was made up of UAE nationals,^[108] with the rest comprising expatriates, many of whom either have been in the country for generations or were born in the UAE.^[109][110] Approximately 85% of the expatriate population (and 71% of the emirate's total population) was Asian, chiefly Indian (51%) and Pakistani (16%); other significant Asian groups include Bangladeshis (9%) and Filipinos (3%).^[111] A quarter of the population (local and foreign) reportedly traces their origins to Iran.^[112] In addition, 16% of the population (or 288,000 persons) living in collective labour accommodation were not identified by ethnicity or nationality, but were thought to be primarily Asian.^[113] 461,000 Westerners live in the United Arab Emirates, making up 5.1% of its total population.^[114][115] There are over 100,000 British expatriates in Dubai, by far the largest group of Western expatriates in the city.^[116] The median age in the emirate was about 27 years. In 2014, there were estimated to be 15.54 births and 1.99 deaths per 1,000 people.^[117] There are other Arab nationals, including GCC nationals.^{[citation needed]}

Arabic is the national and official language of the UAE. The Gulf dialect of Arabic is spoken natively by most Emiratis; some Emiratis also speak Shihhi Arabic.^[118] English is used as a second language. Other major languages spoken in Dubai due to immigration are Malayalam, Sindhi, Gujarati, Urdu, Persian, Hindi, Tamil, Punjabi, Pashto, Bengali, Balochi, Tulu,^[119] Kannada, Sinhala, Marathi, Telugu, Tagalog, and Chinese, in addition to many others.^[120]

Article 7 of the UAE's Provisional Constitution declares Islam the official state religion of the UAE. The government subsidises almost 95% of mosques and employs all Imams; approximately 5% of mosques are entirely private, and several large mosques have large private endowments.^[121] All mosques in Dubai are managed by the Islamic Affairs and Charitable Activities Department, also known as "Awqaf", under the Government of Dubai. The Government appoints all Imams.^[122] The Constitution of the United Arab Emirates provides for freedom of religion. Expats held to be preaching religious hatred or promoting religious extremism are usually jailed and deported.^[123]

Dubai has large Christian, Hindu, Sikh, Baháʼí, Buddhist, Jain and other religious communities residing in the city, as well as a small but growing Jewish community.^[125] In 2014, more than 56% of Dubai residents were Muslims, while 25% were Christians, 16% were Hindus, and around 2% were adherent of other religions.^[124] The Churches Complex in Jebel Ali Village is an area for several churches and temples of different religious denominations, especially Christian denominations.^[126] The largest Christian parish in the world is that of St Mary's Catholic Church in Dubai, owing to the large number of migrant workers in the city.^[127]

Non-Muslim groups may own houses of worship where they can practice their religion freely, provided they obtain a land grant and permission to build a compound. Groups that do not have their own buildings may use facilities provided by other religious organisations or worship in private homes.^[128] Non-Muslim religious groups are also permitted to advertise group functions openly and distribute various religious literature. Catholics are served pastorally by the Apostolic Vicariate of Southern Arabia. British preacher Reverend Andrew Thompson claimed that the United Arab Emirates is one of the most tolerant places in the world towards Christians and that it is easier to be a Christian in the UAE than in the UK.^[129] On 5 April 2020, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints announced the building of one of their temples in Dubai. As part of the announcement, church President Russell M. Nelson said, "The plan for a temple in Dubai comes in response to their gracious invitation, which we gratefully acknowledge."^[130]

One of the world's fastest-growing economies,^[131] Dubai's gross domestic product is projected at over US$177 billion in 2021, with a growth rate of 6.1% in 2014.^[132] Although a number of core elements of Dubai's trading infrastructure were built on the back of the oil industry,^[133] revenues from oil and natural gas account for less than 5% of the emirate's revenues.^[134] It is estimated that Dubai produces 50,000 to 70,000 barrels (7,900 to 11,100 m³) of oil a day^[135] and substantial quantities of gas from offshore fields. The emirate's share in the UAE's total gas revenues is about 2%. Dubai's oil reserves have diminished significantly and are expected to be exhausted in 20 years.^[136] Real estate and construction (22.6%),^[137] trade (16%), entrepôt (15%), and financial services (11%) are the largest contributors to Dubai's economy.^[138]

Dubai's non-oil foreign trade stood at $362 billion in 2014. Of the total trade volume, imports accounted for the largest share, at $230 billion, while exports and re-exports to the emirate stood at $31 billion and $101 billion, respectively.^[139]

By 2014, China had emerged as Dubai's largest international trading partner, with total trade of $47.7 billion, up 29% from 2013. India was second among Dubai's key trading partners, with trade totaling $29.7 billion, followed by the United States at $22.62 billion. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was Dubai's fourth-largest trading partner globally and its first in the GCC and the Arab world, with a total trade value of $14.2 billion. Trade with Germany in 2014 totalled $12.3 billion; Switzerland and Japan both at $11.72 billion; and the UK at $10.9 billion.^[139]

Historically, Dubai and its twin across Dubai Creek, Deira (then independent of Dubai City), were important ports of call for Western manufacturers. Most of the new city's banking and financial centres were headquartered in the port area. Dubai remained a major hub for trade throughout the 1970s and 1980s. Dubai has a free trade in gold and, until the 1990s, was the hub of a "brisk smuggling trade"^[64] of gold ingots to India, where gold import was restricted. Dubai's Jebel Ali port, constructed in the 1970s, has the largest human-made harbour in the world and was ranked seventh globally for the volume of container traffic it supports.^[140] Dubai is also a hub for service industries such as information technology and finance, with industry-specific free zones throughout the city.^[141] Dubai Internet City, combined with Dubai Media City as part of TECOM (Dubai Technology, Electronic Commerce and Media Free Zone Authority), is one such enclave, whose members include IT firms such as Hewlett Packard Enterprise, HP Inc., Halliburton, Google, EMC Corporation, Oracle Corporation, Microsoft, Dell, and IBM, and media organisations such as MBC, CNN, BBC, Reuters, Sky News, and AP.^[142] Various programmes, resources, and value-added services support the growth of startups in Dubai and help them connect to new business opportunities.^[143]

The Dubai Financial Market (DFM) was established in 2000 as a secondary market for trading securities and bonds, both local and foreign. As of the fourth quarter of 2006, its trading volume stood at about 400 billion shares, valued at $95 billion. The DFM had a market capitalisation of about $87 billion.^[113] The other Dubai-based stock exchange is NASDAQ Dubai, the Middle East's international stock exchange. It enables a range of companies, including UAE and regional small and medium-sized enterprises, to trade on an exchange with an international brand name, with access to both regional and international investors.^[144]

DMCC (Dubai Multi Commodities Centre) was established in 2002. It is the world's fastest-growing free zone and was nominated for "Global Free Zone of the Year 2016" by The Financial Times Magazine.

Dubai is also known as the City of Gold because a major part of the economy is based on gold trading, with Dubai's total gold trading volumes in H1 2011 reaching 580 tonnes at an average price of US$1,455 per troy ounce.^[145]

A City Mayors survey ranked Dubai 44th among the world's best financial cities in 2007,^[146] while another report by City Mayors indicated that Dubai was the world's 27th richest city in 2012, in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP).^[147] Dubai is also an international financial centre (IFC) and has been ranked 37th within the top 50 global financial cities as surveyed by the MasterCard Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index (2007),^[148] and first within the Middle East. Since it opened in September 2004, the Dubai IFC has attracted leading international firms as a regional hub and has established NASDAQ Dubai, which lists equity, derivatives, structured products, Islamic bonds (sukuk), and other bonds. The Dubai IFC model is an independent risk-based regulator with a legislative system consistent with English common law.^[149]

In 2012, the Global City Competitiveness Index by the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked Dubai at No. 40 with a total score of 55.9. According to its 2013 research report on the future competitiveness of cities, Dubai will rank 23rd overall in the Index in 2025.^[150] Indians, followed by Britons and Pakistanis are the top foreign investors in Dubai real estate.^[151]

Dubai has launched several major projects to support its economy and develop different sectors. These include Dubai Fashion 2020^[152] and Dubai Design District,^[153] which is expected to become a home to leading local and international designers. The AED 4 billion first phase of the project was completed in 2015.^[154]

As of March 2024, Dubai began operating the world's biggest waste-to-energy facility, which will power approximately 135,000 homes.^[155]

In July 2024, Dubai signed an agreement to develop a logistics hub for food, fruits, and vegetables, planned to be the world's largest of its kind. UAE Minister of Finance Sheikh Maktoum bin Mohammed was present at the signing.^[156]

In 2024, the city of Dubai ranked 12 out of 142 cities in the Smart City Index.^[157]

In September 2019, Dubai's ruler Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum ordered the establishment of the Higher Committee for Real Estate Planning to study and evaluate future real estate construction projects, in order to achieve a balance between supply and demand,^[158] which is seen as a move to curb the pace of construction projects following a decline in property prices.^[159]

The government's decision to diversify from a trade-based, oil-reliant economy to one oriented toward services and tourism increased property value, driving property appreciation from 2004 to 2006. A longer-term assessment of Dubai's property market, however, showed depreciation; some properties lost as much as 64% of their value from 2001 to November 2008.^[160] The large-scale real estate development projects have led to the construction of some of the tallest skyscrapers and largest projects in the world such as the Emirates Towers, the Burj Khalifa, the Palm Islands, and the most expensive hotel, the Burj Al Arab.^[161] Dubai's property market experienced a major downturn in 2008^[162] and 2009 as a result of the slowing economic climate.^[163] By early 2009, the situation had worsened with the Great Recession taking a heavy toll on property values, construction, and employment.^[164] This has had a major impact on property investors in the region, some of whom were unable to release funds from investments made in property developments.^[165] As of February 2009^[update], Dubai's foreign debt was estimated at $80 billion. However, this is a tiny fraction of the world's sovereign debt.^[166]

In Dubai, many of the property owners are residents or genuine investors. However, 2020 Data from the Centre for Advanced Defense Studies (C4ADS) revealed that several real estate owners in the city were either subject to international sanctions or involved in criminal activities. Some others were public officials, with little likelihood of purchasing it with their known incomes. The report "Dubai Uncovered" names 100 Russian oligarchs, public officials, and Europeans involved in money laundering. Benefiting from Dubai's lack of robust real estate regulations, several corrupt individuals owned properties abroad, laundered illicit funds, and invested in real estate to store their wealth. Names of some of such questionable figures included Daniel Kinahan, Alexander Borodai, Roman Lyabikhov, Tibor Bokor, Ruslan Baisarov, Miroslav Výboh, and others.^[167]

For years, Dubai has been labeled a major hub for illicit cash laundering, primarily through its real estate market. Due to the UAE's lack of robust regulations and extradition treaties with many countries, fugitives have found it a perfect hideout. The "Dubai Unlocked" investigation by journalists from 75 media outlets, in coordination with OCCRP and E24, revealed how Dubai's real estate market became a haven for criminals, money launderers, drug lords, fugitives, political figures accused of corruption, and sanctioned individuals seeking to hide their money there. The investigation was based on data leaks from 2020 and 2022, primarily from the Dubai Land Department and publicly owned utility companies. The EU Tax Observatory and Norway's Centre for Tax Research estimated that, in 2022, foreign ownership of real estate in Dubai was approximately $160 billion. Until 2022, there was no obligation for real estate agents, brokers, and lawyers in Dubai to report large cash or cryptocurrency transactions to authorities.^[168]

Following the February 2022 invasion of Ukraine, property prices in Dubai increased significantly as wealthy Russians began investing in the UAE's real estate. Since 2020, property prices in Dubai have increased by 124%. Meanwhile, the EU Tax Observatory and Norway's Centre for Tax Research reported that Russians have invested around $6.3 billion in Dubai's existing and under-development properties since 2022. The increase in property prices pushed out the British expatriates, and forced them to look for property outside Dubai in cities like Ras Al Khaimah.^[169]

Despite rising property prices, real estate transactions in Dubai reached an all-time high in 2024, totaling 180,987 and worth AED 522.5bn. This marks a 36.5% increase in transaction volume since 2023.^[170]

Tourism is an essential part of the Dubai government's strategy to maintain the flow of foreign cash. Dubai's lure for tourists is based mainly on shopping,^[171][172] but also on its ancient and modern attractions.^[173] As of 2018, Dubai is the fourth-most-visited city in the world based on the number of international visitors and the fastest growing, increasing at a 10.7% rate.^[174] The city hosted 14.9 million overnight visitors in 2016 and was expected to reach 20 million tourists by 2020.^[175] A great tourist attraction in Dubai is the Burj Khalifa, the tallest building in the world, although Jeddah Tower in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia is aiming to be taller.

Dubai has been called the "shopping capital of the Middle East".^[176] Dubai alone has more than 70 shopping centres, including the world's second-largest shopping centre, The Dubai Mall. As of June 2024, the Emirate real estate developer Emaar Properties announced plans to expand the 12-million-square-foot mall for 1.5 billion dirhams ($408 million), adding 240 luxury stores, along with new food outlets.^[177] Dubai is also known for the historical souk districts on either side of its creek. Traditionally, dhows from East Asia, China, Sri Lanka, and India discharged their cargo, and the goods would be bargained over in the souks adjacent to the docks. Dubai Creek played a vital role in sustaining the city's community life and was the resource that originally drove Dubai's economic boom.^[178] As of September 2013^[update], Dubai Creek has been proposed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.^[179] Many boutiques and jeweler stores are in the city. Dubai is also known as "the City of Gold", as the Gold Souk in Deira houses nearly 250 gold retail shops.^[180]

Dubai Creek Park in Dubai Creek also plays a vital role in Dubai tourism as it showcases some of the most famous tourist attractions in Dubai such as the Dolphinarium, Cable Car, Camel Ride, Horse Carriage, and Exotic Birds Shows.^[181]

Dubai has a wide range of parks like Safa Park, Mushrif Park, and Hamriya Park. Each is uniquely distinctive. Mushrif Park showcases different houses from around the world. A visitor can view the architectural features of both the exterior and interior of each home.

Some of the most popular beaches in Dubai are Umm Suqeim Beach, Al Mamzar Beach Park, JBR Open Beach, Kite Beach, Black Palace Beach, and Royal Island Beach Club. Mastercard's Global Destination Cities Index 2019 found that tourists spend more in Dubai than in any other city. In 2018, the country topped the list for the fourth consecutive year, with total spend of $30.82 billion. The average daily spend was $553.^[182]

In 2019, Dubai loosened its liquor laws, allowing tourists to purchase alcohol from state-controlled stores. Previously, alcohol was accessible only to locals with special licences. The policy shift came as the United Arab Emirates witnessed a severe economic crisis that led to a drop in alcohol sales by volume.^[183]

In 2021, the UAE was ranked among the 20 most dangerous places for LGBTQ tourists to visit.^[184] In 2022, several LGBTQ tourists who travelled to Dubai were deported. In March 2022, Thai transgender model Rachaya Noppakaroon visited Dubai to perform at the Expo 2020, but was sent back because her passport gave her sex as male.^[185] In another case, a French influencer on TikTok and Snapchat, Ibrahim Godin, was sent back from Dubai because the authorities assumed his male friend travelling with him was his boyfriend. Ibrahim filed a complaint for "public defamation because of sexual orientation", and an investigation was opened by the Vesoul police. He said, "Dubai is not all pretty, all rosy as we see on social networks."^[186][187]

On 2 November 2011, four cities had their bids for Expo 2020^[188] already lodged, with Dubai making a last-minute entry. The delegation from the Bureau International des Expositions, which visited Dubai in February 2013 to examine its readiness for the largest exposition, was impressed by the infrastructure and level of national support. In May 2013, the Dubai Expo 2020 Master Plan was revealed.^[189] Dubai won the right to host Expo 2020 on 27 November 2013.^[190]

The leading site of Dubai Expo 2020 was planned to be a 438-hectare area (1,083 acres), part of the new Dubai Trade Centre Jebel Ali urban development, located midway between Dubai and Abu Dhabi.^[191] Moreover, the Expo 2020 also created various social enlistment projects and monetary boons to the city targeting the year 2020, such as initiating the world's largest solar power project.^[192]

The Dubai Expo 2020 was scheduled to take place from 20 October 2020 until 10 April 2021 for 173 days where there would be 192 country pavilions featuring narratives from every part of the globe, have different thematic districts that would promote learning the wildlife in the forest exhibit too many other experiences.^[193]

Due to the impact of COVID-19, the organisers of Expo 2020 postponed the Expo by one year to begin in 2021 (the new dates are 1 October 2021 to 31 March 2022).^[194][195]

Dubai has targets to build an inclusive, barrier-free, and disability-friendly city, which opened as Expo City Dubai. The city has already implemented changes, including wheelchair-accessible taxis, sloped pavements, and tactile floor indicators at all metro stations for visually impaired passengers.^[196]

Dubai has a rich collection of buildings and structures of various architectural styles. Many modern interpretations of Islamic architecture are found here, due to a boom in construction and architectural innovation in the Arab World in general, and in Dubai in particular, supported not only by top Arab or international architectural and engineering design firms such as Al Hashemi and Aedas, but also by top firms of New York and Chicago.^[33] As a result of this boom, modern Islamic – and world – architecture has literally been taken to new levels in skyscraper building design and technology. Dubai now has more completed or topped-out skyscrapers higher than 2⁄3 km (2,200 ft),

1⁄3 km (1,100 ft), or

1⁄4 km (820 ft) than any other city. A culmination point was reached in 2010 with the completion of the Burj Khalifa (Khalifa Tower), now by far the world's tallest building at 829.8 m (2,722 ft). The Burj Khalifa's design is derived from the patterning systems embodied in Islamic architecture, with the triple-lobed footprint of the building based on an abstracted version of the desert flower hymenocallis which is native to the Dubai region.^[197]

The completion of the Burj Khalifa, following the construction boom that began in the 1980s, accelerated in the 1990s and reached a rapid pace during the 2000s, leaving Dubai with the world's tallest skyline as of 4 January 2010^[update].^[198][199] At The Top in Burj Khalifa, the world's second highest observatory deck after the Shanghai Tower with an outdoor terrace, is one of Dubai's most popular tourist attractions, with over 1.87 million visitors in 2013.^[200]

The Creek Tower had been planned in the 2010s to keep Dubai atop the list of tallest buildings.^[201] However, construction was placed on indefinite hold during the coronavirus pandemic. No date has been announced for the project's continuation.^[202] Dubai is recognised as a "Design City" by UNESCO's Creative Cities Network.

The Burj Al Arab (Arabic: برج العرب, Tower of the Arabs), a luxury hotel, is frequently called "the world's only 7-star", though its management has never made that claim. The term "7-star hotel" was coined by a British journalist to describe their experience of the hotel.^[203] A Jumeirah Group spokesperson said: "There's not a lot we can do to stop it. We're not encouraging the use of the term. We've never used it in our advertising."^[203] The hotel opened in December 1999.

Burj Khalifa, known as the Burj Dubai before its inauguration, is a 828 metres (2,717 ft) high^[204] skyscraper in Dubai, and the tallest building in the world. The structure of the desert flower inspired the tower Hymenocallis. It was constructed by more than 30 contracting companies worldwide, with workers from 100 nationalities, from 2004 to 2009. It's also an architectural icon, named after Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan.^[205] The building opened on 4 January 2010.^[206]

The Palm Jumeirah is an artificial archipelago, created using land reclamation by Nakheel Properties, a company owned by the Dubai government, and designed and developed by Helman Hurley Charvat Peacock/Architects, Inc. It is one of three planned islands, the Palm Islands, which extend into the Persian Gulf. The Palm Jumeirah is the smallest and the original of the three Palm Islands, and is in the Jumeirah coastal area. It was built from 2001 to 2006.^[207]

The World Islands is an archipelago of small artificial islands shaped like a world map in the waters of the Persian Gulf, 4.0 kilometres (2.5 mi) off the coast of Dubai.^[208] The World islands are mainly made of sand dredged from Dubai's shallow coastal waters and are one of several artificial island developments in Dubai. The islands' areas vary from 250,000 to 900,000 square feet. The islands are arranged in a world map shape, and the archipelago spans about 9 km.^[209]

On 14 February 2013, the Dubai Miracle Garden, a 72,000-metre (236,000-foot) flower garden, opened in Dubailand. It is the world's largest flower garden. The garden displays more than 50 million flowers with more than 70 species of flowering plants.^[210] The garden uses treated wastewater from the city's municipality and utilises the drip irrigation method for watering the plants. During the summer seasons from late May to September, when the climate can get extremely hot with an average high of about 40 °C (104 °F), the garden stays closed.^[211][212]

In January 2024, Dubai announced its intention to build the Aeternitas Tower, which will become the world's tallest residential clock tower at a height of 450 m (1,480 ft). That is four times the height of London's Big Ben. The tallest clock tower to date is Makkah Clock Royal Tower in Mecca. The tower's name, "Aeternitas", comes from the ancient Roman religion; she was the divine personification of eternity. The project is a joint venture between Dubai-based real estate developer London Gate and Swiss luxury watch manufacturer Franck Muller.^[213] The tower offers luxury apartments, including 1 to 4-bedroom units, as well as Sky Villas and Sky Mansions, with interiors inspired by Franck Muller's designs.^[214]

Dubai Marina is an artificial canal city, built along a 3-kilometre (2 mi) stretch of Persian Gulf shoreline. As of 2018^[update], it had a population of 55,052.^[215] When the entire development is complete, it will accommodate more than 120,000 people in residential towers and villas.^[216] The 50 million square feet area of the Dubai Marina boasts a centrepiece that includes a 3.5-kilometer water canal which is the heart of the development and provides dual access to the sea, making Dubai Marina a foremost sailing destination.^[217] It is on Interchange 5 between Jebel Ali Port and the area which hosts Dubai Internet City, Dubai Media City, and the American University in Dubai. The first phase of this project has been completed. Dubai Marina was inspired by the Concord Pacific Place development along False Creek in Vancouver, BC, Canada.^[218] Much marine wildlife (especially whales and sharks) has entered the marina because of its proximity to the open sea.^[219]

The structure consists of two towers connected at the bottom, with a sky bridge at the top that connects the 63rd through the 77th levels. The sky bridge houses luxury apartments on the world's highest occupiable floor at 294.36 metres.^{[citation needed]} Known as Jumeirah Gate, it opened in December 2020 and is situated along the beach. The towers have the world's highest infinity pool in a building, on the roof, at a height of 293.906 metres.^[220]

Transport in Dubai is controlled by the Roads and Transport Authority (RTA), an agency of the government of Dubai, formed by royal decree in 2005.^[221] The public transport network has in the past faced congestion and reliability issues which a large investment programme has addressed, including over AED 70 billion of improvements planned for completion by 2020, when the population of the city is projected to exceed 3.5 million.^[222] In 2009, according to Dubai Municipality statistics, there were an estimated 1,021,880 cars in Dubai.^[223] In January 2010, the proportion of Dubai residents who use public transport stood at 6%.^[224]

Five main routes – E 11 (Sheikh Zayed Road), E 311 (Sheikh Mohammed Bin Zayed Road), E 44 (Dubai-Hatta Highway), E 77 (Dubai-Al Habab Road), and E 66 (Oud Metha Road, Dubai-Al Ain Road, or Tahnoun Bin Mohammad Al Nahyan Road)^[225] – run through Dubai, connecting the city to other towns and emirates. Additionally, several important intra-city routes, such as D 89 (Al Maktoum Road/Airport Road), D 85 (Baniyas Road), D 75 (Sheikh Rashid Road), D 73 (Al Dhiyafa Road now named as 2 December street), D 94 (Jumeirah Road), and D 92 (Al Khaleej/Al Wasl Road) connect the various localities in the city. The eastern and western sections of the city are connected by Al Maktoum Bridge, Al Garhoud Bridge, Al Shindagha Tunnel, Business Bay Crossing, and Floating Bridge.^[226]

The RTA operates Dubai's public bus transport system. The bus system services 140 routes and transports over 109 million people in 2008. By the end of 2010, there will be 2,100 buses in service across the city.^[227] In 2006, the transport authority announced the construction of 500 air-conditioned passenger bus shelters, and planned for 1,000 more across the emirates in a move to encourage the use of public buses.^[228]

The RTA licenses all taxi services. Dubai-licensed taxis are easily identifiable by their cream bodywork, with varied roof colours indicating the operator. Dubai Taxi Corporation, a division of the RTA, is the largest operator and operates red-roofed taxis. There are five private operators: Metro Taxis (orange roofs); Network Taxis (yellow roofs); Cars Taxis (blue roofs); Arabia Taxis (green roofs); and City Taxis (purple roofs). In addition, there is a Ladies and Families taxi service (pink roofs) with female drivers, which caters exclusively to women and children. More than 3,000 taxis operate in the emirate, averaging 192,000 trips daily and carrying about 385,000 people. In 2009, taxi trips exceeded 70 million trips, serving around 140.45 million passengers.^{[229][230][231]}

Dubai International Airport (IATA: DXB), the hub for the Emirates airline, serves the city of Dubai and other emirates in the country. The airport is the third-busiest airport in the world by passenger traffic and the world's busiest airport by international passenger traffic.^[233] In addition to being an important passenger traffic hub, the airport is the sixth-busiest cargo airport in world, handling 2.37 million tons of cargo in 2014.^[234] Emirates is one of the national flag carriers of the United Arab Emirates.^[235] As of 2018^[update], it operated internationally, serving over 150 destinations in over 70 countries across six continents.^[236]

The development of Al Maktoum International Airport (IATA: DWC) was announced in 2004. The first phase of the airport, featuring one A380-capable runway, 64 remote stands, one cargo terminal with an annual capacity for 250,000 tonnes of cargo, and a passenger terminal building designed to accommodate five million passengers per year, has been opened.^[237] When completed, Dubai World Central-Al Maktoum International will be the largest airport in the world with five runways, four terminal buildings, and capacity for 160 million passengers and 12 million tons of cargo.^[238][239]

Dubai Metro consists of two lines (Red and Green) that run through the city's financial and residential areas. It was opened in September 2009.^[242] UK-based international service company Serco is responsible for operating the metro. The Red Line is the major backbone, with 29 stations (4 underground, 24 elevated, and one at ground level) running from Rashidiya Station to UAE Xchange Station in Jebel Ali. The Green Line, running from the Etisalat Station to the Creek Station, has 20 stations (8 underground, 12 elevated). An extension to the Red Line connecting the EXPO 2020 site opened on 1 June 2021. A Blue and a Purple Line have also been planned. The Dubai Metro is the first urban train network in the Arabian Peninsula.^[240] The trains are fully automated and driverless.^[243]

A monorail line connecting the Palm Jumeirah to the mainland opened on 30 April 2009.^[244] It is the first monorail in the Middle East.^[245] An extension to connect to the Red Line of the Dubai Metro is planned.^[246]

A tramway located in Al Sufouh runs for 14.5 km (9.0 mi) along Al Sufouh Road from Dubai Marina to the Burj Al Arab and the Mall of the Emirates with two interchanges with the Dubai Metro Red Line. The first section, a 10.6 km (6.6 mi)- long tram line serving 11 stations, was opened in 2014.^[247]

Dubai has announced it will complete a link of the UAE high-speed rail system, which is planned to link with the whole GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council, also known as Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf), and then possibly Europe.^{[citation needed]} The high-speed rail will support passengers and cargo.^[248]

There are two major commercial ports in Dubai, Port Rashid and Port Jebel Ali. Port Jebel Ali is the world's largest human-made harbour, the biggest port in the Middle East,^[249] and the 7th-busiest port in the world.^[140] One of the more traditional methods of getting across Bur Dubai to Deira is by abras, small boats that ferry passengers across the Dubai Creek, between abra stations in Bastakiya and Baniyas Road.^[250] The Marine Transport Agency has also implemented the Dubai Water Bus System. The water bus is a fully air-conditioned boat service connecting selected destinations across the creek. One can also use the tourist water bus service in Dubai. The latest addition to the water transport system is the Water Taxi.^[251] The Water-Taxis can transport a maximum of 20 passengers at a time which provides a smooth journey along Al Mamzar and Dubai Marina via Dubai Creek. It has 40 pickup points across Dubai.^[252]

Dubai is increasingly leveraging its logistics and ports to participate in trade between Europe and China, as well as between Europe and Africa, in addition to oil transport. For this purpose, ports such as Jebel Ali and Mina Rashid are rapidly expanded, and investments are made in their technology. The country is historically and currently part of the Maritime Silk Road that runs from the Chinese coast to the south via the southern tip of India to Mombasa, from there through the Red Sea via the Suez Canal to the Mediterranean, there to the Upper Adriatic region to the northern Italian hub of Trieste with its rail connections to Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the North Sea.^{[253][254][255]}

The UAE's culture mainly reflects traditional Arab culture. The influence of Arab and Islamic cultures on architecture, music, attire, cuisine, and lifestyle is also pronounced. Five times a day, Muslims are called to prayer from the minarets of mosques scattered across the country. Major holidays in Dubai include Eid al-Fitr, which marks the end of Ramadan, and National Day (2 December), which marks the formation of the United Arab Emirates.^[256]

The city's cultural imprint as a small, ethnically homogeneous pearling community was transformed by the arrival of other ethnic groups and nationals—first by Iranians in the early 1900s, and later by Indians and Pakistanis in the 1960s. In 2005, 84% of Dubai's metropolitan population was foreign-born, about half of whom were from India.^[111]

From 2006 to 2022, the weekend had been Friday and Saturday, as a compromise between Friday's holiness to Muslims and the Western weekend of Saturday and Sunday.^[257] Before 2006, the weekend was Thursday-Friday. On 1 January 2022, Dubai moved to a four-and-a-half-day working week, with the weekend comprising Friday afternoon, Saturday, and Sunday.^[258]

Because of the tourism-driven entrepreneurial approach of many Dubai residents and the high standard of living, Dubai's culture has gradually evolved toward luxury, opulence, and lavishness, with a strong emphasis on leisure-related extravagance.^{[259][260][261]} Dubai is known for its nightlife. Clubs and bars are chiefly found in hotels due to liquor laws. The New York Times called Dubai "the kind of city where you might run into Michael Jordan at the Buddha Bar or stumble across Naomi Campbell celebrating her birthday with a multiday bash".^[262]

Annual entertainment events such as the Dubai Shopping Festival^[263] (DSF) and Dubai Summer Surprises (DSS) attract over 4 million visitors from across the region and generate revenues over $2.7 billion.^[264][265] The International Festivals and Events Association (IFEA), the world's leading events trade association, has crowned Dubai as IFEA World Festival and Event City, 2012 in the cities category with a population of more than one million.^[266][267]

Large shopping malls in the city, such as Deira City Centre, Mirdiff City Centre, BurJuman, Mall of the Emirates, Dubai Mall (the world's second-largest), Dubai Marina Mall, Dubai Hills Mall, Dragon Mart, Dubai Festival City Mall, and Ibn Battuta Mall as well as traditional Dubai Gold Souk, Al Souk Al Kabir (known as Meena Bazaar), and other souks attract shoppers from the region.^[268]

Arabic cuisine is very popular and is available everywhere in the city, from the small shawarma diners in Deira and Al Karama to the restaurants in Dubai's hotels. Fast food, South Asian, and Chinese cuisines are also very popular and are widely available. The sale and consumption of pork is regulated and is legally permitted to be sold only to non-Muslims, in designated areas of supermarkets and airports.^[269] Similarly, the sale of alcoholic beverages is also regulated. A liquor permit is required to purchase alcohol, but it is available at hotel bars and restaurants.^[270] Shisha and qahwa boutiques are also popular in Dubai. Biryani is also popular in Dubai.^[271]

The inaugural Dubai Food Festival was held between 21 February and 15 March 2014.^[272] According to Vision magazine, the event was aimed at enhancing and celebrating Dubai's position as the gastronomic capital of the region. The festival was designed to showcase the variety of flavours and cuisines on offer in Dubai, featuring dishes from over 200 nationalities.^[273] The next food festival was held between 23 February 2017 and 11 March 2017.^[274]

Dubai Opera opened its doors on 31 August 2016 in Downtown Dubai with a performance by Plácido Domingo. The venue is a 2000-seat, multifunctional performing arts centre that can host not only theatrical shows, concerts, and operas, but also weddings, gala dinners, banquets, and conferences. Arabic movies are popular in Dubai and the UAE. Since 2004, the city has hosted the annual Dubai International Film Festival which serves as a showcase for Arab and Middle Eastern filmmaking talent.^[275] The Dubai Desert Rock Festival was also another major festival consisting of heavy metal and rock artists but is no longer held in Dubai.

One of the lesser-known sides of Dubai is the importance of its young contemporary art gallery scene. Since 2008, the leading contemporary art galleries such as Carbon 12 Dubai,^[276] Green Art, gallery Isabelle van den Eynde, and The Third Line have brought the city onto the international art map. Art Dubai, the region's growing and reputable art fair, is also a major contributor to the development of the contemporary art scene.^[277] The Theatre of Digital Art Dubai (ToDA) opened in 2020 and presents immersive digital art, including contemporary work.^[278]

Many international news agencies, such as Reuters, APTN, Bloomberg L.P., and Middle East Broadcasting Centre (MBC), operate in Dubai Media City and Dubai Internet City. Additionally, several local network television channels, such as Dubai One (formerly Channel 33) and Dubai TV (EDTV), provide programming in English and Arabic, respectively. Dubai is also the headquarters for several print media outlets. Dar Al Khaleej, Al Bayan, and Al Ittihad are the city's largest circulating Arabic language newspapers,^[279] while Gulf News, Khaleej Times, Khaleej Mag, and 7days are the largest circulating English newspapers.^[280]

Etisalat, the government-owned telecommunications provider, held a virtual monopoly over telecommunications services in Dubai before the establishment of other, smaller telecommunications companies, such as Emirates Integrated Telecommunications Company (EITC—better known as Du) in 2006. The Internet was introduced into the UAE (and therefore Dubai) in 1995. The network has an Internet bandwidth of 7.5 Gbit/s and supports 49 STM-1 links.^[281] Dubai houses two of four Domain Name System (DNS) data centres in the country (DXBNIC1, DXBNIC2).^[282] Censorship is common in Dubai and used by the government to control content that it believes violates the cultural and political sensitivities of Emirates.^[283] Homosexuality, drugs, and the theory of evolution are generally considered taboo.^[270][284]

Internet content is regulated in Dubai. Etisalat uses a proxy server to filter Internet content the government deems inconsistent with the values of the country, such as sites that provide information on how to bypass the proxy; sites about dating, gay and lesbian networks, and pornography; and formerly sites originating from Israel.^[285] Emirates Media and Internet (a division of Etisalat) notes that as of 2002^[update], 76% of Internet users are male. About 60% of Internet users were Asian, and 25% were Arab. Dubai enacted the Electronic Transactions and Commerce Law in 2002, which addresses digital signatures and electronic registers. It prohibits Internet Service Providers (ISPs) from disclosing information gathered in the course of providing services.^[286] The penal code contains official provisions that prohibit digital access to pornography; however, it does not address cyber crime or data protection.^[287]

In 2019, the Italian artist Princess Bee produced "Hi Dubai", the first cross-media project that reveals the "soul of the city" through the life and work experiences of 25 Emirati and expat women. The series also promoted the Emirate's lifestyle and main events to attract young people to visit and live in Dubai. "Hi Dubai" was on air on the national channel Dubai One TV in prime time, after the National News, during the UAE National Day week; then distributed online on Dubai Post and in-flight on ICE across all Emirates Airlines flights.^[288]

Football and cricket are the most popular sports in Dubai. The headquarters of the International Cricket Council is in Dubai. Three football teams (Al Wasl FC, Shabab Al-Ahli Dubai FC, and Al Nasr SC) represent Dubai in UAE Pro-League.^[270] Al-Wasl have the second-most championships in the UAE League, after Al Ain. Dubai also hosts both the annual Dubai Tennis Championships and The Legends Rock Dubai tennis tournaments, as well as the Dubai Desert Classic golf tournament and the DP World Tour Championship, all of which attract sports stars from around the world. The Dubai World Cup, a thoroughbred horse race, is held annually at the Meydan Racecourse. The city's top basketball team has traditionally been Shabab Al Ahli Basket. Dubai also hosts the traditional rugby union tournament, Dubai Sevens, part of the Sevens World Series. Event pictures from Rugby 7 Dubai 2015. In 2009, Dubai hosted the 2009 Rugby World Cup Sevens. Auto racing is also a major sport in Dubai; the Dubai Autodrome hosts many auto racing events throughout the year. Another sporting event in Dubai is the Dubai Run, which is part of the Dubai Fitness Challenge and the world's largest free fun run, a main highlight of the challenge since 2017.^[289] It also features a state-of-the-art indoor and outdoor Kartdrome, popular among racing enthusiasts and recreational riders. The Indian Premier League cricket competition was held in the UAE in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On 12 June, Tommy Fleetwood, 7-time DP World Tour winner, was declared World Global Ambassador.^[290] In 2025, Dubai introduced the "Dubai Sports Strategy 2033", a long-term framework designed to support the emirate’s sports sector and strengthen its position as a global sports destination. The strategy outlines initiatives to expand community participation in physical activity, enhance the quality and number of sporting events, and develop local talent across multiple disciplines. It also aims to increase the economic contribution of Dubai’s sports industry through targeted programmes and infrastructure development.^[291]

The Emirati attire is typical of several countries in the Arabian Peninsula. Women usually wear the "abaya", a long black robe, with a hijab (a headscarf that covers the neck and part of the head, all of the hair and the ears). Some women may wear a niqab that covers the mouth and nose, leaving only the eyes exposed. Men wear the "kandurah" also referred to as "dishdasha" or even "thawb" (long white robe) and the headscarf (ghotrah). The traditional ghutrah in the UAE is white and held in place by an accessory called "egal", which resembles a black cord. Younger Emiratis prefer to wear red-and-white ghutrah and tie them around their heads like turbans.^[292]

The dress code is never compulsory; many people wear Western or other Eastern clothing. However, prohibitions on "indecent clothing" or revealing too much skin are aspects of the UAE to which Dubai's visitors are expected to conform and are encoded in Dubai's criminal law.^[293] The UAE has enforced decency regulations in most public places, aside from waterparks, beaches, clubs, and bars.^[294]

The school system in Dubai follows the United Arab Emirates' system. As of 2009^[update], there are 79 public schools run by the Ministry of Education that serve Emiratis and expatriate Arab people, as well as 207 private schools.^[295] The medium of instruction in public schools is Arabic with emphasis on English as a second language, while most of the private schools use English as their medium of instruction. Currently, only the Swiss International Scientific School in Dubai claims to offer parallel streams in different languages – bilingual English/French or English/German.^[296] Most private schools cater to one or more expatriate communities.^[297]

Some 36 schools offer international education using one or more of the four International Baccalaureate Programmes for students aged 3–19.^[298] Currently, 15 schools^[299] have introduced the IB Career-related Programme that can be combined with a vocational qualification such as a BTEC.^[300]

While there are more UK-curriculum-based schools in Dubai than any other curriculum, more students attend Indian-curriculum schools, which tend to be considerably larger and cost less to attend. There are 34 Indian-curriculum schools in the emirate,^[301] most of which offer the CBSE, and just a handful the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE) Indian syllabus. Examples of Indian-curriculum schools include IHS, DPS, and DMHS. There are a small number of Pakistani schools in Dubai offering the FBISE curriculum for expatriate children.

A total of 18 schools offer British primary education through age 11.^[302] There are 64 schools that offer a variation of a UK curriculum style secondary education,^[303] either a pure GCSE and A-Level offering, or increasingly I/GCSE up to 16, and then the IB Diploma post-16. Currently, no school in the UAE offers IB or A-level at age 16, but several schools have said they will do so in the future. British style eleven-to-eighteen secondary schools offering General Certificate of Secondary Education and A-Levels include Dubai College, Dubai British School, and English Language School Pvt. Some schools, such as The American School of Dubai, also offer the curriculum of the United States.^[304]

Dubai has a very active education regulator, the KHDA, which is best known for its school ratings, but actually has a wide mandate^[305] when it comes to school improvement in the emirate. Its inspections truly matter, and there is no doubt that school quality has improved as a result of its implementation. A total of 17 schools are currently rated Outstanding (2020), and a further 40 are rated Very Good. Parents in general rate schools highly.^[306]

The top 10 largest universities by student numbers in Dubai according to the KHDA (2024)^[307] are Middlesex University Dubai, Heriot-Watt University Dubai, University of Wollongong in Dubai, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Dubai, American University in Dubai, S P Jain School of Global Management, Rochester Institute of Technology of Dubai, Amity University Dubai, University of Birmingham Dubai, and Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani Dubai. They offer courses in all major subjects, with the most popular subject areas being Business, followed by Information Technology, then Engineering.^[307] Most Universities in Dubai are located in the two Educational Zones (Knowledge Village or Academic City). In 2013, Synergy University Dubai Campus^[308] opened its campus in Jumeirah Lakes Towers being a first University in Dubai to be located outside of Educational Zones (Knowledge Village or Academic City).^[309]

Only 4 Dubai Universities are present in the QS World University Rankings 2024/2025.^[310] To allow the assessment of more UAE Universities, the Ministry of Education launched The National Higher Education Institutions Classification Framework^[311] which classifies UAE Universities based on their research and teaching. Of the top 10 largest Dubai universities University of Wollongong in Dubai, American University in Dubai, and Rochester Institute of Technology of Dubai, were all classified as "Very Good" within The National Higher Education Institutions Classification Framework.^[311]

Healthcare in Dubai can be divided into two different sectors: public and private. Each Emirate can set healthcare standards in accordance with its internal laws, though the standards and regulations rarely differ significantly. Public hospitals in Dubai were first established in the late 1950s and continued to expand alongside public health initiatives. There are now 28 hospitals in Dubai, six public and 22 private, with three more major hospitals scheduled to be built by 2025.^[312]

By the end of 2012, there were also a total of 1,348 medical clinics, 97% of which were operated privately.^[313] In 2015, Dubai phased in mandatory health insurance for all inhabitants, thereby leading to increased demand for medical services.^[314]

Dubai Hospital is a public hospital in Dubai and is part of Dubai Department of Health and Medical Services. Although the decision to construct Dubai Hospital was made in 1977, it did not begin admitting patients until March 1983.^[315] The hospital consists of 14 stories, with the lower two for Accident & Emergency and outpatients, and the upper ten floors.

Dubai is twinned with:^[316]

• Archaeology of the United Arab Emirates
• Al Sufouh Archaeological Site
• Dubai Desert Conservation Reserve
• List of buildings in Dubai
• Outline of Dubai
• Sanitation in Dubai
• Sustainability in Dubai

• Syed Ali. Dubai: Gilded Cage (Yale University Press; 2010) 240 pages. Focuses on the Arab emirate's treatment of foreign workers.
• Heiko Schmid: Economy of Fascination: Dubai and Chicago as Themed Urban Landscapes, Berlin, Stuttgart, 2009, ISBN 978-3-443-37014-5.
• John M. Smith: Dubai The Maktoum Story, Norderstedt, 2007, ISBN 3-8334-4660-9.

• دبي.امارات (Archived 29 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine) – official government portal
• www.dm.gov.ae – Dubai Municipality website